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MGMT 340 Midterm 2 Exam Review Nnotes Chapter 7 Motivation * The three key elements of motivation Definition of motivation: Process that accounts for individual’s intensity, direction, persiste... nce of effort to attaining organizational goals. Three elements: 1. Intensity: how hard a person tries. High intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job performances outcomes unless effort is channeled in direction that benefits organization. 2. Direction: Quality of effort, effort must be directed toward and consistent with organization’s goals. 3. Persistence: Measures how long a person can maintain effort. Motivated people stay with task long enough to achieve goals. * The needs theories: Maslow hierarchy of needs • Says that every human has hierarchy of 5 needs (6th proposed as highest level) • Pros: Has wide recognition among managers, it is intuitive and logical, easy to understand, some research validates it. • Cons: Most research doesn’t apply to diverse cultures, (except for physiological needs). Five needs: 1. Physiological- satisfy hunger, thirst, shelter, bodily needs. 2. Safety-security- Security and protection from physical and emotional harm. 3. Social belongingness- Affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship. 4. Esteem- 1. Internal factors are self respect, autonomy, achievement 2. external factors are status, recognition, attention. 5. Self-actualization- drive to become what we are capable of becoming, includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment. The 2 factor theory (Herzberg) or motivation hygiene theory • Asks “what do people want from their jobs”? Asks people to describe situations in job in detail in which they feel exceptionally good or bad about their job. • Intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement are related to job satisfaction. • People that feel good about their work tend to attribute intrinsic factors to their situations. • People that are dissatisfied tend to attribute extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay, company policies, and work conditions. • Data shows that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, it is no satisfaction. Opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. • Factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate from factors that lead to job dissatisfaction. • Eliminating factors that create job dissatisfaction may bring peace but not motivation. • Hygiene factors: Conditions such as: o quality of supervision o pay o company policies o physical work conditions o relationships with others o job security. • If hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied or satisfied. • To motivate people, need to emphasize intrinsic factors/rewards associated with the work itself or outcomes directly from it such as: o promotional opportunities o personal growth opportunities o recognition o responsibility o achievement • Pros: o Influential and in use in research in Asia. Managers know about it. • Cons: o Not well supported in research, criticisms about original methodology and assumptions, such as satisfaction is strongly related to productivity. o Research shows that if hygiene and motivational factors are equally important, both are capable of motivating. • • McClelland’s Theory of Needs; • Theory of 3 needs that are motivating factors as opposed to Maslow’s needs for survival. • Three needs: 1. Need for achievement (nAch)- Drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards. 2. Need for power (nPow)- Need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise. 3. Need for affiliation (nAff)- desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. • Focused most attention on nAch. • High achievers perform best when they perceive probability of success as 0.5 (50-50 chance). They like to set goals that require stretching themselves. o Dislike gambling with high odds (low probability of success) because they don’t get achievement satisfaction from success that comes from pure chance. o Dislike low odds (high probability of success) because there is no challenge to their skills. • Research shows you can predict relationship between achievement need and job performance. o When jobs have high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and medium degree of risk, high achievers are strongly motivated. o High need to achieve doesn’t necessarily make someone a good manager. They are interested in how well they do personally, and not in influencing others to do well. o Need for affiliation and power are closely related to managerial success. Best managers are high in nPow and low in nAff. • The view that high nAch acts as an internal motivator assumes 2 cultural characteristics: 0. Willingness to accept moderate degree of risk (excludes countries with strong uncertainty-avoidance). 1. Concern with performance (applies to countries with strong achievement characteristics). • Pros: o Has research support, especially in cross-culture research including culture dimensions. o Concept of nAch has a lot of research and acceptance in many fields. o nPow and nAff has a lot of research and is accepted. • Cons: o Degree of 3 needs are difficult to measure. o Hard to put theory into practice. o Common for managers to be aware of motivational drivers and label employees based of observations over time. o Concepts are helpful but not used objectively. * The contemporary theories: One thing in common: • each has reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation. Represent latest thinking in explaining employee motivation, but doesn’t mean it’s totally right. Self determination theory- • proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions (autonomy) • Theory also says that people seek ways to achieve competence and make positive connections with others. • Anything that makes an enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chose task will undermine motivation (example: getting paid for volunteer work). • Cognitive evaluation theory- extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic interest in a task. • When people are paid for work, it feels less like something they want to do, and more like something they have to do. • Suggestion for providing rewards: Put caution in use of extrinsic rewards to motivate, pursuing goals from intrinsic motives are more sustaining for human motivation than extrinsic rewards. • Example of how extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation: Programmer that enjoys values coding. Giving bonus based off how many lines of code would feel coercive and intrinsic motivation would suffer. May or may not increase lines of code. • Intrinsic motivation contributes to quality of work, while incentives contribute to quantity of work. • Intrinsic motivation predicts performance whether or not there are incentives but is less of a predictor when incentives are tied to performance directly (bonuses) rather than indirectly. • Self-concordance- considers how strongly people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. • Across cultures, people that pursue goals because of intrinsic interest are more likely to attain goals, are happier when they do, and are happy even if they don’t. • Process of striving towards goals are fun whether or not goal is achieved. • People that don’t enjoy work for intrinsic reasons can still perform acceptably but they experience higher levels of strain. • People who pursue goals for extrinsic reasons (money, status, benefits) are less likely to attain goals and less happy when they do because goals are less meaningful to them. • What to do: o Individuals should choose job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards. o Organizations should provide intrinsic and extrinsic incentives. o Managers need to make work interesting, provide recognition, and support employee growth/development. * Goal setting theory and its implementation: management by objectives; SMART goals • Goal setting theory says that specific and difficult goals with feedback lead to higher performance. o Intentions to work toward a goal are considered a major source of work motivation. • SMART Goals o Specific goals increase performance.  Specificity acts as internal stimulus. Example: Trucked that commits to 12 hauls will perform better than a trucker with no goals or a generalized goal like “do your best”. o Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals.  If factors such as acceptance of goals are held constant, the more difficult the goal, the higher level of performance. o Feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.  Feedback guides behavior.  People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goal because it helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what to do next.  Self generated feedback where employees can monitor their own progress is more powerful than externally generated feedback. • Evidence is mixed for if employees participate in setting their own goals improves performance. o In some studies, participatively set goals had better performance. o In other studies, individuals perform best when assigned goals by their boss (example: China). o Participation may make goals more achievable. o Without participation, individual needs to clearly understand its purpose and importance. • Three personal factors influencing goals-performance relationship: 1. Goal Commitment- theory assumes individual is committed to the goal and determined not to lower or abandon it. Believes:  they can achieve goal  wants to achieve it.  More likely to occur when:  goals are made public  individual has internal locus of control.  Goals are self set rather than assigned  They are based on individual ability. 2. Task Characteristics- Goals affect performance more strongly when:  tasks are simple rather than complex  well learned rather than novel.  Independent rather than interdependent.  Achievable  For interdependent tasks, group goals are preferred.  Goal abandonment is more likely for people that self-affirm core values because they strongly internalize the implication of failures. 3. National Culture- setting specific, difficult, individual goals may have different effects in different cultures.  Collectivistic and high power distance cultures: achievable moderate goals are more motivating than difficult ones.  High power distance: Assigned goals generate greater goal commitment.  Research has not shown that group based goals are more effective in collectivistic than individualist cultures. • Goal setting is not always beneficial. Example: can be too effective. Goals related to performance undermines adaptation and creativity because people become too focused on outcomes and ignore learning process. • Goals are not all equally effective. o Example: for mechanical tasks with standards of productivity, goals that reward quantity is highly motivating. o For other jobs that require complex thinking, goals for rewarding quantity is not effective. o People may fail to give up on unattainable goal even when it might be beneficial to do so. • 2 categories for how people differ in regulating thoughts and behaviors during goal pursuit: o 1. Promotion focus: Strive for advancement and accomplishment and go towards conditions that move them closer toward desired goals. Example: Studying by reading material. o 2. Prevention focus- strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals.Similar to avoidance side. Example: Avoiding things that could get in the way of studying. o Differs in the manner that they get to the goal. o Which is better strategy?  Answer depends on outcome you are striving for.  Promotion focus is related to higher levels of task performance, citizenship behavior, innovation.  Prevention focus is related to safety performance.  Ideally, be both promotion and prevention oriented.  Set achievable goals, remove distractions, and provide structure for individuals. Implementing Goal setting • Many managers don’t set clearly defined goals. • Management by objectives (MBO)- systematic way to utilize goal setting. o Emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable. o Works from the bottom up and top down on cascading objectives. (Top to bottom: Overall organizational objectives> divisional objectives> department objectives> individual objectives) o Lower level managers participate in setting goals, so it goes from bottom up. o Goes from top down because of hierarchy. o MBO provides specific performance objectives for individuals. o • Four ingredients for MBO programs: 1. Goal specificity 2. Participation in decision making (including setting of goals or objectives) 3. Explicit time period 4. Performance feedback • MBO is found in many business, healthcare, educational, government, and nonprofit organizations. • Popularity does not mean they always work. • Reason MBO fails: o unrealistic expectations, o lack of commitment by top management, o inability and unwillingness to allocate rewards based on goal accomplishment. • Goal setting and ethics: o Cost of emphasizing the attainment of goals are the standards set for goal achievement o (example: money being tied to goal attainment means we focus on money and become willing to compromise ourselves ethically. o Need to be primed with thoughts about how we are spending time to behave ethically. o Limited if there is time pressure. o Can also adopt avoidance techniques to not look bad and behave more unethical. Self efficacy theory- • Individual’s belief that they are capable of performing a task. • The higher the self efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed. • In difficult situations: o people with low self-efficacy are more likely to lessen their effort or give up. o People with high self-efficacy will try to master the challenge. • Self efficacy creates a positive spiral for those high in it because they become more engaged in their tasks and increase performance and increases efficacy more. • Self efficacy is associated with higher level of focused attention and leads to increased task performance. • Feedback influences self efficacy: people high in self efficacy respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation. People low will lessen their effort. • Changes in self efficacy is related to changes in creative performance. • How managers can help employees achieve high levels of self-efficacy- by bringing goal setting theory and self efficacy theory together. Both theories complement each other. • Employees whose managers set difficult goals for them will have a higher level of self-efficacy and set higher goals for their own performance. Setting difficult goals communicates that you have confidence in them. 4 ways of increasing self efficacy: 1. Enactive mastery- gaining relevant experience with task or job. If you did job successfully in the past, you’re more confident to do it in the future. (Most important source of increasing self efficacy) 2. Vicarious modeling- Becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. Most effective when you see yourself as similar to that person. (Example: friend quits smoking increases your confidence that you can quit too.) 3. Verbal persuasion- Becoming more confident when someone convinces us that we have the skills to be successful. (Example: motivational speakers) 4. Arousal- Arousal leads to energized state and you get psyched up and feel up to the task, which makes you perform better. If task requires steady, lower key perspective (example: editing a document), it may lead to lower performance. 5. Extra: Intelligence and personality- being intelligent, conscientious, and emotionally stable have higher self-efficacy. Influencing Self efficacy in others • Best way for manager to use verbal persuasion is through Pygmalion effect, which is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true. • Example: Teacher getting told students have high IQ, so they give them more challenging assignments and expected more out of them, which improved self efficacy. • Training programs can use enactive mastery by having people practice and build skills. o Training works well when it is interactive and feedback is given after training. o People with high self-efficacy gets more benefits from training and use training on the job more. * Organizational justice and its refinement: the equity theory: components of organizational justice Equity theory • Says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and respond to eliminate any inequalities. (Example: Making less than a coworker and complaining to manager) Components of organizational justice: 1. Inputs- Effort, experience, and education. 2. Outcomes- Pay, promotion, recognition, bigger office. • Employees compare the outcomes (pay) with what they put in (effort). • Takes the ratio of their outcomes to their inputs and compare to ratio of others. • If we believe our ratio is equal to others, a state of equity exists and we perceive the situation as fair. 6 Choices Employees make when perceiving inequality 1. Change inputs- Put in less effort if underpaid and put in more effort if overpaid. 2. Change outcomes- Try to increase money. People on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing higher quantity of units of lower quality. 3. Distort perceptions of self- Changing the way they think they work after finding out how much others work. (example: thinking before that they work at a medium pace but change thinking that they work harder than everyone else). 4. Distort perceptions of others- Thinking that another job isn’t as good after finding out the pay. 5. Choose a different referent- Changing how you compare yourself. (Not making as much as brother but doing better than dad when he was my age) 6. Leave the field- quitting the job. • Concerns of equity theory: o Inequalities created by overpaying doesn’t significantly affect work behavior.  Employees won’t give back salary if overpaid.  Overpaid employees will restore equity by rationalizing their situation (I’m worth it because I work harder than everyone). o Not everyone is equally equity-sensitive  Depends on feelings of entitlement.  Some prefer outcome-input ratios lower than the referent comparisons.  Predictions aren’t accurate for benevolent types. • Organizational justice- overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, made up of: o Distributive justice- Fairness of the outcomes such as pay and recognition. Explains what outcomes are allocated.  Can be distributed in many ways such as:  Distributing raises equally  basing them on which employees need money the most.  Employees perceive outcomes are fairest when distributed equally.  Distributing for Teams:  Best way to boost morale and teamwork is to differentiate the pay based on their inputs.  Differentiating pay based on inputs increases team performance and attracts better members.  People gauge distributive justice and equity based on their emotional reaction to the way they think they are being treated, instead of being rational and looking at just the ratio. o Procedural Justice- Perceived fairness of the process used to determine distribution of rewards (Looks at how outcomes are allocated)  Employees perceive that procedures are fairer when they have a say in the decision making process.  Having direct influence or a say in decisions creates a sense of control and makes us feel more empowered.  Employees perceives procedures as fairer when decision makers follow these rules:  Making decisions in consistent manner (across people over time)  Avoiding bias (not favoring a person over another)  Using accurate information  Considering the people or groups their decisions affect.  Acting ethically  Remaining open to appeals or correction.  If outcomes are favorable, the person cares less about the process so procedural justice doesn’t matter as much.  People only pay attention to the process when it is unfavorable or viewed as unfair.  If process is judged to be fair, employees are more accepting of unfavorable outcomes  Employees think that fair procedures will eventually result in a fair outcome. o Informational Justice- Degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions.  Whether managers provide employees with explanations for key decisions and keep them informed on important organizational matters.  Has to do with fairness in the way employees are treated during interactions with managers.  The more detailed and candid the managers are with employees, the more fairly treated the employee feels.  Explanations for bad news is beneficial when they have an excuse after (I know this is bad, but it wasn’t my decision), rather than justifications (I know this is bad but its not a big deal). o Interpersonal justice- Degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect  has to do with fairness in the way employees are treated during interactions with managers.  Unique because it occurs in everyday interactions between managers and employees.  Allows manager to take advantage or miss out on opportunities to make their employee feel fairly treated.  Many managers choose to treat employees more harsh because they think being polite is too soft.  Negative emotions can be motivating sometimes. • Justice Outcomes- When employees feel fairly treated they respond positively by: o Higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors. o Lower levels of counterproductive behaviors such as shirking job duties o Distributive and procedural justice are strongly associated with task performance. o Informational and interpersonal justice are strongly associated with citizenship behavior. o Employee sleep and health are linked to fair treatment. o Fair treatment enhanced commitment to organization and makes employee thinks cared for their well-being. o Employees trust their supervisors and reduces uncertainty and fear of being exploited. o Produces positive emotions and prompts citizenship behavior. • Fairness is subjective. When addressing injustices, mangers need to focus on the source of problem, and give employees opportunity to express themselves. Ensuring justice • Organization justice perception and rule adherence depends on the motivation of each manager. o Some managers calculate justice by their degree of adherence to justice rules, which will try to gain compliance by creating identity of being fair and making norms of fairness.  Acts more fair when managers have more rules and less discretion. o Other managers are motivated by justice decisions by their emotions.  When they have high positive affect and/or low negative affect, these managers will act fairly.  Acts more fairly when they have greater discretion. Culture and Justice • Same principles of procedural justice is respected around the world. • Inputs and outcomes are valued differently in different cultures. • Individualistic, feminine, uncertainty avoidance, low power distance-Justice perception is most important • Materialistic countries value outcome of work, relational cultures value social rewards and status. * The key tenets of expectancy theory: 3 components: Expectancy, Instrumentality, Valence; Expectancy theory- Says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and the attractiveness of that outcome. • Example: Employees will be motivated to have high level of effort if they think it will lead to good performance appraisal, and a good appraisal will lead to rewards like a raise or intrinsic rewards. The rewards will satisfy their personal goal. • Three relationships in expectancy theory 1. Effort-performance relationship (Expectancy)- likelihood perceived that putting a certain amount of effort in will lead to performance.  (If I give max effort, will it be recognized in performance appraisal?) If no, it is because:  organization appraisal system isn’t designed to measure effort.  Skills may be deficient.  Employee thinks boss doesn’t like them and will have poor appraisal regardless of effort. 2. Performance-reward relationship (Instrumentality)- How much an individual believes performing at a level will lead to getting desired outcome.  (If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organization rewards?)  Many organizations reward things besides performance.  When pay is based on seniority, cooperation, kissing up, employees will see performance-reward relationship as weak and demotivating). 3. Rewards-personal goal relationship (Valence)- How much organizational rewards satisfies the person’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those rewards.  (If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?)  Gets something else than they expected, like a raise instead of a promotion.  Managers are limited in rewards they can distribute, which makes it difficult to tailor rewards to individual employees.  Managers may wrongly assume all employees want same thing. • Expectancy theory explains why many workers aren’t motivated in their job and do the minimum. Integrating Contemporary theories of Motivation • opportunities can either aid or hinder individual effort. The individual effort box on the left also has another arrow leading into it, from the person’s goals. • goal-setting theory, the goals–effort loop reminds us that goals direct behavior. • Expectancy theory predicts employees will exert a high level of effort if they perceive a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance and reward, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals. o For effort to lead to good performance, the individual must have the ability to perform and perceive the performance appraisal system as fair and objective. • If cognitive evaluation theory were fully valid in the actual workplace, we would predict that basing rewards on performance should decrease the individual’s intrinsic motivation. • The performance–reward relationship will be strong if the individual perceives that performance (rather than seniority, personal favorites, or other criteria) is rewarded. • The final link in expectancy theory is the rewards–goals relationship. Motivation is high if the rewards for high performance satisfy the dominant needs consistent with individual goals. • the model considers achievement motivation, job design, reinforcement, and equity theories/organizational justice. o A high achiever is not motivated by an organization’s assessment of performance or organizational rewards, hence the jump from effort to personal. goals for those with a high nAch.  high achievers are internally driven as long as their jobs provide them with personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.  They are not concerned with the effort–performance, performance–reward, or rewards–goal linkages. • Reinforcement theory enters the model by recognizing that the organization’srewards reinforce the individual’s performance. If employees see a reward system as “paying off” for good performance, the rewards will reinforce and encourage good performance o Rewards also play a key part in organizational justice research. o Individuals will judge the favorability of their outcomes (for example, their pay) relative to what others receive but also with respect to how they are treated: o When people are disappointed in their rewards, they are likely to be sensitive to the perceived fairness of the procedures used and the consideration given to them by their supervisors. Chapter 8 Motivating by job design Job Design- suggests that the way elements in a job are organized can influence employee effort. The job characteristics model serves as a framework to identify opportunities for changes to those elements. * The job characteristics model (5 core dimensions) and the way it motivates by changing the work environment. Job Characteristics Model (JCM)- A model that proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. 1. Skill variety- the degree to which a job requires different activities using specialized skills and talents. Example of high skill variety: Garage owner that does electrical repairs, builds engines, does body work, interact with customers. Low skill variety will do only 1 thing. 2. Task identity- the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. Example of high task identity: cabinetmaker designs furniture, selects wood, builds object. Example of low task identity: Using a machine to only make table legs. 3. Task significance- the degree to which a job affects the lives or work ofother people. Example of high task significance: The job of a nurse helping patients in a hospital intensive care unit. Example of low task significance: sweeping floors in a hospital. 4. Autonomy is the degree to which a job provides the worker freedom, independence,and discretion in scheduling work and determining the procedures for carrying it out. Example of high autonomy: A sales manager who schedules his own work andtailors his sales approach for each customer without supervision. Example of low autonomy: An account representative who is required to follow a standardized sales script with potential customers. 5. Feedback is the degree to which carrying out work activities generates direct and clear information about your own performance. Example of high feedback: Testing and inspecting iPads. Example of low feedback: Installing components in iPads on assembly line. • skill variety, task identity, and task significance—combine to create meaningful work the employee will view as important, valuable, and worthwhile. • Jobs with high autonomy give employees a feeling of personal responsibility for results • feedback will show them how effectively they are performing • JCM says that individuals obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results in the model) that they personally have performed well (experienced responsibility) on a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness). • Three Critical Psychological states 1. Experienced meaningfulness of work- Skill variety, task identity, task significance. 2. Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work- Autonomy 3. Knowledge of actual results of work activities- Feedback • The more these three psychological states are present, the greater will be employees’ motivation, performance, and satisfaction, and the lower their absenteeism and likelihood of leaving. • individuals with a high growth need are more likely to experience the critical psychological states when their jobs are enriched and respond to them more positively. • • Studies for JCM o Employees that are “other oriented” (concerned with welfare of others at work), the relationship between intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction was weaker.  job satisfaction comes less from these characteristics when we care about others o the degree of psychological ownership we feel toward our work enhances our motivation, especially when feelings of ownership is share in work group. o in virtual work situations, if individuals work together online but not in person, their experience of meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results can suffer  managers can prevent these for employees by developing personal relationships with them and increasing their sense of task significance, autonomy, and feedback. * The Motivating Potential Score (MPS) Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards and explain their effects Motivating Potential Score (MPS)- combines the core dimensions of the JCM into a single predictive index. • To be high on motivating potential, jobs must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness o and high on both autonomy and feedback o • If jobs score high on motivating potential, the model predicts that motivation, performance, and satisfaction will improve, while absence and turnover will be reduced. • A few studies have tested the JCM in different cultures, but the results aren’t consistent. o Model is individualistic and job enrichment strategies may not have same effects in collectivistic. Job Redesign Methods 1. Job Rotation- periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another with similar skill requirements at the same organizational level (also called cross-training). Job rotation has been shown to increase job satisfaction and organizational commitment 2. relational job design- shifts the spotlight from the employee to those whose lives are affected by the job that employee performs Chapter 9 Group behaviors A formal group is defined by the organization’s structure, with designated work assignments and established tasks. Should work on organizational goals. informal group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Meets need for social contact. Deeply affects behavior and performance. Social identity theory- • Our tendency to personally invest in the accomplishments of a group. Example: Sports teams. • people have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied to whatever happens to the group • social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with other people. Can lead to better health and less likely to attribute negative situations to internal reasons. • In order to get good outcomes from social identities, need to feel that social identities are positive. • Two types of identities within organization: o 1. relational identification- when we connect with others because of our roles o 2. collective identification, when we connect with the aggregate characteristics of our groups. • Identification with workgroups is stronger than with organization. o If we have low identification with our organizations, we may experience decreased satisfaction and engage in fewer organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). o if we have low identification in relation to the group, there may be increased among by group members Ingroups and Outgroups • Ingroup favoritism occurs when we see members of our group as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same • people with low openness and/or low agreeableness are more susceptibleto ingroup favoritism • Outgroup- can be everyone outside of the ingroup or identified group. • Ingroups and outgroups pave the way for social identity threat, which is akin to stereotype threat o individuals believe they will be personally negatively evaluated due to their association with a devalued group, and they may lose confidence and performance effectiveness 1. The stages of group development. * The Five-stage model * An alternative model for temporary groups with deadlines: The punctuated equilibrium model Temporary groups with finite deadlines pass through a unique sequencing of actions (or inaction). 1. First meeting- o set group’s direction in first meeting. o The group’s general purpose and direction is established, and then a framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions through which the group will approach its project emerges. o Once set, the group’s direction is solidified and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of its life. 2. Phase 1- first phase of group activity is one of inertia and slower progress. o period of inertia—the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions. 3. Transition- Takes place exactly when group used up half of its allotted time. o Midpoint is like alarm clock, it heightens member’s awareness that their time is limited and they need to get moving. 4. Transition- initiates major changes. o transition ends phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives o The transition sets a revised direction for phase 2, a new equilibrium or period of inertia . 5. Phase 2- a second phase of inertia follows the transition. o group executes plans created during the transition period. 6. Completion- the group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. o The group’s last meeting is characterized by a final burst of activity to finish its work. Punctuated equilibrium model- A set of phases that temporary groups working under a time deadline go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity. • characterizes groups as exhibiting long periods of inertia interspersed with brief revolutionary changes triggered primarily by members’ awareness of time and deadlines Group Property: Roles • Role- a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying agiven position in a social unit. • Different groups need different role requirements. • Role perception- An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation. • Role expectations- How others believe a person should act in a given situation. Example: Judge is supposed to have dignity. • Psychological contract- An unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from an employee and vice versa. • Role conflict- A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations. • Interrole conflict- A situation in which the expectations of an individual’s different, separate groups are in opposition. o Within organizations, most employees are simultaneously in occupations,workgroups, divisions, and demographic groups, and these identities can conflict when the expectations of one clash with the expectations of another • Role Play and Assimilation- o The degree to which we comply with our role perceptions and expectations—even when we don’t agree with them initially. Group Property 2: Norms Norms- acceptable standards of behavior shared by members that express what they should and should not do under certain circumstances • norms influence behavior with a minimum of external controls' • Norms and Emotions- Influence of emotions on others. Example: Family is a highly normative group. o Frequent communication can increase power of norms. o Norms dictate experience of emotions for individuals and groups. • Norms and Conformity- Group pressures can impact conformity. o Example: if everyone in group says wrong answer, you will also say wrong answer. o Moral decisions have strong effect on conformity. o All groups don’t impose equal conformity pressures- People conform to their reference groups, in which a person is aware of other members, defines himself or herself as a member or would like to be a member, and feels group members are significant to him or her. • Norms and Behavior- o norms in the workplace significantly influence employee behavior. o Employees do not individually maximize their output. o Their role performance became controlled by a group norm. o Members are afraid that if they significantly increased their output, the unit incentive rate might be cut, the expected daily output might be increased, layoffs might occur, or slower workers might be reprimanded. o Group established included a number of behavioral “don’ts . • Positive Norms and Group Outcomes o Focus is on OCB. o strong PC norms increase group creativity  Clear expectations about male-female interactions reduces uncertainty about group expectations  allows the members to more easily express their creative ideas without combatting stereotype norms. o Positive group norms may well beget positive outcomes, but only if other factors are present.  high level of group extraversion predicted helping behaviors more strongly when there were positive cooperation norms o not everyone is equally susceptible to positive group norms-  Individual personalities factor in  level of a person’s social identity with the group • Negative Norms and Group Outcomes o Deals with CWB. o a workgroup can become characterized by positive or negative attributes.  When those attributes are negative, such as when a workgroup is high in psychopathy and aggression, the characteristics of deceit, amorality, and intent to harm others are pronounced o employees have been reporting an increase in rudeness and disregard toward others by bosses and coworkers in recent years. o Deviant workplace behavior is likely to flourish where it’s supported by group norms o Consequences of workplace deviance for groups:  a chain reaction occurs in groups with high levels of dysfunctional behavior.  The process begins with negative behaviors like shirking, undermining coworkers, or being generally uncooperative.  As a result of these behaviors, the group collectively starts to have negative moods.  These negative moods then result in poor coordination of effort and lower levels of group performance. • Norms and culture o Individualist cultures are motivated when allowed personal choice of a task. o Collectivist cultures are motivated when the ingroup person assigned the task. Group Property 3: Status and Group • Status- a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. o Significant motivator and has major behavioral consequences when people perceive disparity between what they believe their status is and what others perceive it as. • What determines status? o 1. The power a person wields over others. Because they likely control the group’s resources, people who control group outcomes tend to be perceived as high status. ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::CONTENT CONTINUED IN THE ATTACHMENT::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: [Show More]

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