Pearson Psychology Chapter 2 Questions and Answers

Biological Psychology - ANSWER Branch of psychology that concerns the link between biology and behavior Neuron - ANSWER A nerve cell: Building block of the nervous system Sensory neurons - ANSWER Neurons that carry ...

Biological Psychology - ANSWER Branch of psychology that concerns the link between biology and behavior Neuron - ANSWER A nerve cell: Building block of the nervous system Sensory neurons - ANSWER Neurons that carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord Motor Neurons - ANSWER Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands Interneurons - ANSWER Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs Dendrites - ANSWER The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that recieve messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body Axon - ANSWER The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands Myelin sheath - ANSWER A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next Action Potential - ANSWER A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon Threshold - ANSWER The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Synapse - ANSWER The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the recieving neuron Synaptic gap/Synaptic cleft - ANSWER The tiny gap at the junction Neurotransmitters - ANSWER Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. Reuptake - ANSWER A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron Acetylcholine - ANSWER Enables muscle action, learning, and memory Dopamine - ANSWER Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion Serotonin - ANSWER Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal Norepinephrine - ANSWER Helps control alertness and arousal GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) - ANSWER A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Glutamate - ANSWER A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory Endorphins - ANSWER Natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure Agonist - ANSWER Mimics neurotransmitters effects Nervous System - ANSWER The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems Central Nervous System - ANSWER The brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System - ANSWER The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous systemto the rest of the body Nerves - ANSWER Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs Somatic Nervous System - ANSWER The division of the peripheral nervous system that contropls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system Autonomic Nervous System - ANSWER The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs Sympathetic Nervous System - ANSWER The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations Parasympathetic Nervous System - ANSWER The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy Reflex - ANSWER A simple, autonomic response to sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response Endocrine System - ANSWER The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones - ANSWER Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. Adrenal Glands - ANSWER A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress Pituitary Gland - ANSWER The endocrine system's most influential gland. Electroencephalogram (EEG) - ANSWER An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. PET Scan (positron emission tomography) - ANSWER A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) - ANSWER A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. FMRI (functional MRI) - ANSWER A techniqur for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans Brainstem - ANSWER The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull Medulla - ANSWER The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing Reticular formation - ANSWER A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role controlling arousal Thalamus - ANSWER The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory recieving arasd in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla Cerebellum - ANSWER The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance Limbic System - ANSWER Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives Amygdala - ANSWER Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion Hypothalamus - ANSWER A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maitenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp.), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward Cerebral Cortex - ANSWER The intrecate fabric of interconnected neural cells coveringthe cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. Glial Cells (gila) - ANSWER Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons Frontal Lobes - ANSWER Portion of the cerebrall cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments Parietal Lobes - ANSWER Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; recieves sensory input for touch and body position. Occipital Lobes - ANSWER Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that recieve information from visual fields Temporal Lobes - ANSWER Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; Includes the auditory areas, each recieving information primarily from the opposite ear. Motor Cortex - ANSWER An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements Sensory Cortex - ANSWER Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations Association Areas - ANSWER Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking Plasticity - ANSWER The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience Neurogenesis - ANSWER The formation of new neurons Corpus Callosum - ANSWER The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brainb hemispheres and carrying messages between them. Split Brain - ANSWER A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers conecting them. What are neurons, and how do they transmit information? - ANSWER Neurons are the elementary components of the nervous system, the body's speedy electrochemical information system. A neuron sends signals through its axons, and recerives signals through its branching dendrites. If the combined signals are strong enough, the neuron fires, transmitting an electrical impulse ( the action potential) down its axon by means of a chemistry-to-electricity process. The neuron's reaction is an all-or-none process. How do nerve cells communicate with other nerve cells? - ANSWER When action potentials reach the end of an axon (the axon terminals), they stimulate the release of neurotransmitters. These chemical messengers carry a message from the sending neuron across a synapse to receptor sites on a receiving neuron. The sending neuron, in a process called reuptake, then normally reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitter molecules n the synaptic gap. The receiving neuron, if the signals from that neuron and others are strong enough, generates its own action potential and relays the message to other cells. How do neurotransmitters influence behavior? - ANSWER Each neurotransmitter travels a designated path in the brain and has a particular effect on behavior and emotions. Acetylcholine aggects muscle action, learning, and memory. Endorphins are natural opiates released in response to pain and exercise. What are the functional divisions of the nervous system? - ANSWER The neurons system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS- the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which connects to CNS to the rest of the body by means of nerves. The PNS has two main divisions. The somatic nervous system enables voluntary control of the skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system, through its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, controls involuntary muscles and glands. Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. Sensory neurons carry incoming information from sense receptors to the brain and spinal cord, and motor neurons carry information from the brain and spinal cord out to the muscles and glands. Interneurons communicate within the brain and spinal cord and between sensory and motor neurons. Neurons cluster into working neural networks. How does the endocrine system- the body's slower information system- transmit its messages? - ANSWER The endocrine system is a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, where they travel through the body and affect other tissues, including the brain. In an intricate feedback system, the brain's hypothalamus influences the pituitary gland ( the endocrine system's master gland) which influences other glands (such as the adrenals) to release hormones, which in turn influence the brain. How do neuroscientists study the brain's connection to behavior and mind? - ANSWER Clinical observations and lesioning have revealed the general effects of brain damage. MRI scans now reveal brain structures, and EEG, PET, and fMRI (functional MRI) recordings reveal brain activity. What are the functions of important lower-level brain structures? - ANSWER The brainstem, the oldest part of the brain, is responsible for automatic survival functions. its components are he medulla (which controls hearbeat and breathing). the pons (which helps coordinate movements), and the reticular formation (which affects arousal). The thalamus, the brain's sensory switchboard, sits above the brainstem. The cerebellum, attached to the rear of the brainstem, enables some types of nonverbal learning and memory; coordinates muscle movement; and helps process sensory information. The limbic system's neural centers include the hippocampus (which processes memories of facts and episodes), the amygdala (involved in emotions such as agression and fear), and the hypothalamus(involved in various drives, maintenance functions, and pleasurable rewards). The hypothalamus also controls the pituitary, which influences other glands to release hormones. How is the cerebral cortex organized? - ANSWER The cerebral cortex is the thin layer of interconnected neurons covering the brain's hemispheres. Prominent folds divide each hemisphere into four lobes-the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. What are the functions of the cerebral cortex? - ANSWER Some brain regions serve specific functions. The motor cortex (at the rear of the frontal lobes) controls muscle movement. The sensory cortex (at the front of the parietal lobes) receives information from our senses. Most of the cortex is devoted to uncommitted association areas, which integrate information involved in learning, remembering, thinking, and other higher level functions. Language depends on a chain of events in several brain regions, particularly Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and the angular gyrus. Damage to any of these regions may cause one of several types of aphasia. To what extent can a damaged brain reorganize itself? - ANSWER If one hemisphere is damaged early in life, the other will pick up many of its functions. This plasticity diminishes later in life. Some brain areas are capable of neurogenesis(forming new neurons) What do split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain hemispheres? - ANSWER Split-brain research (experiments on people with a severed corpuscallosum) has confirmed that in most people, the left hemisphere is the more verbal, and that the right hemisphere excels in visual perception and making inferences. Studies of healthy people with intact brains confirm that each hemisphere makes unique contributions to the integrated functioning of the brain.