LETRS Glossary Volume 1 Units 1-4 Exam Graded A+

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allophones - ANSWER Slight alterations to pronunciation of phonemes resulting from phonemes overlapping with one another in a spoken word; these variations of pronunciation are predictable and unconsc... ious, as most speakers make them. allophonic variation - ANSWER The slightly different pronunciation of a phoneme, depending on its place in a word; for example, automatic nasalizing of a vowel before a nasal consonant. alphabetic principle - ANSWER The concept that letters are used to represent individual phonemes in the spoken word; insight into this principle is critical for learning to read and spell. antonym - ANSWER A word that overlaps with another word, but which has the opposite meaning. automaticity - ANSWER The ability to read quickly and accurately without conscious effort. background knowledge - ANSWER Preexisting knowledge of facts and ideas necessary to make inferences. base words - ANSWER Words that can stand on their own, or can serve as part of another word, as a free morpheme. benchmark - ANSWER A standard or a set of standards used as a threshold for predicting future risk for reading difficulty. blend - ANSWER Two or three graphemes, each one representing a phoneme (e.g., the s-c-r in scrape); a ________ is not one sound, but two or three adjacent consonants before or after a vowel in a syllable. characters - ANSWER The protagonist or who the story is about, plus optional secondary people or animals whose roles within the story help the plot to unfold. clause - ANSWER A group of words that has a subject and a predicate and functions as a unit. closed syllable - ANSWER A syllable with a short vowel spelled with a single vowel letter and ending in one or more consonants (e.g., hat, kit-ten). coarticulation - ANSWER Occurs when phonemes are spoken together to produce syllables or words and the features of these phonemes are affected by the speech sounds that precede or follow them. code switching - ANSWER The conscious effort to write and/or speak in a certain way, depending on the social context and/or whether the language is spoken or writter. cognate - ANSWER A word in one language that shares a common ancestor and common meanings with a word in another language. Many Spanish words, such as "problema" or "diagrama," are ________ that are built around the same Latin and Greek prefixes, suffixes, or roots that English words also employ. coherence - ANSWER The property of sticking together into a consistent whole; can refer to a quality of text or to the representation of meaning in a person's mind. cohesive devices - ANSWER The specific linguistic devices by which a text hangs together, such as pronoun references, repeated phrases, or substitution or one phrase for another. comparative adjective - ANSWER An adjective that compares two nouns or pronouns (e.g., Sarah is taller than Monique; the red flower is more colorful than the pink one). complementary antonym - ANSWER An antonym that is mutually exclusive from its opposite term. complex sentence - ANSWER A complex sentence has an independent clause and a dependent clause; the dependent clause only makes sense with the independent clause in the sentence (e.g., "When she came into the room, the class settled down."). composition - ANSWER The skill of formulating ideas into words, incorporating subskills such as knowledge of the topic, vocabulary, and Standard English grammar and usage. compound sentence - ANSWER A sentence with two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., "The cat crouched to pounce and her tail twitched."). conditional verb forms - ANSWER A challenging sentence feature that expresses a situation that is hypothetical or highly unlikely (e.g. "If the apples were ripe, he might have made a tart."). conjunctions - ANSWER The parts of speech that connect the words, phrases, or clauses and indicate the relationship between the elements joined. conjunctive (connecting) adverbs - ANSWER Conjunctions that connect two independent clauses in one sentence or link ideas in two or more sentences. They often show cause and effect, sequence, or compare and contrast relationships. consonant - ANSWER A phoneme (speech sound) that is not a vowel and that is formed by obstructing the flow or air with the teeth, lips, or tongue; English has 25 ________ phonemes. consonant blend - ANSWER Two or three consonant phonemes before or after a vowel in a syllable (e.g., bl-, fr-, str-, -nd, -sp). consonant-le (Cle) syllable - ANSWER An unaccented final syllable containing a consonant before / followed by silent e (e.g., ea - gle, drib - ble). coordinating conjunctions - ANSWER Conjunctions that connect grammatically equal parts of sentences, such as words to words, phrases to phrases, and clauses to clauses. curriculum-based measurements (CBMs) - ANSWER Standardized measurements that assess content that students should master by the end of the grade level that the measurement represents; requires standard administration and scoring. decoding - ANSWER The ability to translate a word from print to speech, usually by employing knowledge of sound-symbol correspondences. dependent clause - ANSWER A clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction or a realtive pronoun and expresses an incomplete thought; it can't stand on it's own (e.g., "after we went home" or "when the sun sets"). derivational suffixes - ANSWER Grammtical endings that mark or determine the part of speech of the suffixed word. diagnostic decoding survey - ANSWER A diagnostic tool that is used as a screening test to measure decoding with a large group of students, or for in-depth diagnosis with individual students; also known as a diagnostic phonics survey. dialect - ANSWER An intelligible version of a language with systematic differences in phonology, word use, and/or grammatical skills. digraph - ANSWER A two-letter combination (e.g., th, ph) that stands for a single phoneme in which neither letter represents its usual sound. dipthongs - ANSWER Single vowel phonemes that glide in the middle; the mouth position shifts during the production of the single vowel phoneme, especially the vowels spelled ou and oi. discourse - ANSWER Written or spoken communication or the exchange of information and ideas, usually longer than a sentence, between individuals or between the writer and the reader. discourse comprehension - ANSWER The understanding of meanings in longer segments of connected text, whether written or spoken. double deficit - ANSWER A combination of phonological and naming-speed dificits. double negative - ANSWER A challenging sentence that contains two negative elements (e.g., "I never told her not to eat the sandwiches."). doublet - ANSWER A double letter (e.g., ff, ll, ss, zz) that represents one phoneme (e.g., the zz in buzz). dysgraphia - ANSWER A breakdown in the communication pathways between the mind's image of a letter and the hand's ability to produce that letter in written form. elaborative questioning - ANSWER Questioning that requires students to integrate information from the text with prior knowledge, mental images, feelings, or bigger ideas relevant to the text. ellipses - ANSWER A cohesive device that occurs when words that name or refer to an entity already named are assumed but not stated. expressive vocabulary - ANSWER The words one uses in speaking and writing. functional writing skills - ANSWER The skills necessary to transcribe or encode words into written symbols, using phonological, orthographic, morphological, and syntactic aspects of language. fricative - ANSWER A consonant sound created by forcing air through a narrow opening in the vocal tract; includes /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /sh/, /zh/, and /th/. genre - ANSWER A distinct type of literature, characterized by convention of structure and content. glide - ANSWER A type of speech sound that glides immediately into a vowel; includes /h/, /w/, and /y/. gradable antonym - ANSWER An antonym that takes its meaning from the context in which it is used, and is therefore subject to scaling. grapheme - ANSWER A letter or letter combination that spells a phoneme; can be one, two, three, or four letters in English (e.g., e, ei, igh, eigh). graphic organizer - ANSWER A visual representation of the logical relationships among ideas. graphomotor skill - ANSWER The skill of manually forming the letters that represent written language. high-frequency words - ANSWER Words that occur most often in written English, including articles, common nouns, pronouns, conjunctions, and auxiliary (helping) verbs. independent clause - ANSWER A clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own. inferences - ANSWER Assumptions that a reader makes based on evidence from the text and the reader's own experiences. inflectional suffixes - ANSWER Grammatical endings that do not change the part of speech of the word to which they are added. interjection - ANSWER A word used to express emotion (e.g., Yikes! Wow!). lexical quality - ANSWER The nature of a stored word image in the brain. A high quality representation of a word in memory enable orthographic mapping better than a partial or poorly elaborated word image. lexicon - ANSWER The name for the mental dictionary in every person's phonological processing system. liquid - ANSWER The speech sounds /l/ and /r/ that have vowel-like qualities and no easily definable point of articulation. low-frequency words - ANSWER Words that do not occur often in printed text, and which are likely to be found only in text concerning a specific topic. macroprocesses - ANSWER Thought processes and/or activities by which students process and transform new information so that it is "owned." mental model - ANSWER The mental representation of a text's meaning that locates those meanings within a wide context of time, place, and circumstance. Also known as situation model. metacognition - ANSWER The act of monitoring and assessing one's own awareness and thought processes. metalinguistic awareness - ANSWER The ability to think about and reflect on the structure of language itself. The invention of the alphabet was an achievement in ________ ________. morpheme - ANSWER The smallest meaningful unit of language; it may be a word or a part of a word; it may be a single sound (e.g., plural /s/), one syllable (e.g., suffix -ful), or multiple syllables (e.g., prefix inter-). morphology - ANSWER The study of meaningful units in language and how the units are combined in word formation. morphonemic - ANSWER English orthography is ________, which means that it is a deep alphabetic writing system organized by both sound-symbol correspondences and morphology. nasal - ANSWER A type of phoneme that directs resonance through the nose; in English, /n/, /m/, and /ng/ are ________ phonemes. nonstandard dialect - ANSWER Any dialect that differs from Standard American English (SAE), which refers to English that is generally used in professional communication and taught in American schools. norm-referenced tests - ANSWER Standardized tests that are designed to compare and rank test-takers in relation to each other. noun - ANSWER A part of speech that names a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., potatoes, anger). noun phrase - ANSWER A phrase that includes a noun and the words that modify it (adjectives), such as "the cold glass" or "a fragrant rose." onset-rime - ANSWER The natural division of a syllable into two parts; the onset comes before the vowel, and the rime includes the vowel and what follows after it (e.g., pl - an). open syllable - ANSWER A syllable ending with a long vowel sound that is spelled with a single vowel letter (e.g., me, yo-yo). orthographic mapping - ANSWER The mental process used to store words for immediate and effortless retrieval. It requires phonemic awareness, letter-sound knowledge, and the mechanism for sight word learning. orthography - ANSWER A writing system for representing language. paragraph - ANSWER A number of sentences about the same topic or idea that are grouped together and formatted in a certain way. passive voice - ANSWER A challenging sentence feature wherein the subject receives the action (e.g., "Someone had cleaned the windows."). [Show More]

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