PBIO EXAM 2

PBIO EXAM 2 Explain how long ago and why trade was necessary to obtain cloves, nutmeg and other valuable spices. - ✔✔First evidence of trade: 1700 BC Necessary because different resources were found in different locat ...

PBIO EXAM 2 Explain how long ago and why trade was necessary to obtain cloves, nutmeg and other valuable spices. - ✔✔First evidence of trade: 1700 BC Necessary because different resources were found in different locations around the world Describe possible consequences of trade on natural populations of plant resources, using cloves as an example. - ✔✔Decreases natural populations of plant resources because they are being more readily harvested to trade Name the two key processes central to globalization and the benefits it brings, as described in the World Trade Report. - ✔✔Breakthroughs in transport technologies: opened up national economies Shrinking of the world economy: more room for international trade Describe the types of transportation that have been used to move goods around the globe throughout history. - ✔✔Steamships Railways Diesel engines began replacing coal for steam in ships (1912) and trains (1930's) Identify factors discussed throughout the reading that led to lower transportation costs. Explain how these declining costs and increased infrastructure influenced the extent of trade networks. - ✔✔Technology- refrigeration, communication, fuel efficiency Describe how greater access to natural resources (raw materials or primary products) in some countries affected their relationship to other countries and their own development in an increasingly industrialized world. - ✔✔Countries started specializing in selling particular goods: This built relationships between countries when trading Suggest how trade in goods and services could be modified to reduce our carbon footprint. - ✔✔make the switch to renewable fuel sources Describe how fossil fuels form, identifying the original source of materials and the processes and conditions that led to their formation. - ✔✔Fossil fuels were formed from prehistoric plants and animals that lived hundreds of millions of years ago. These plants and animals decomposed slowly over thousands of years into organic matter and formed fossil fuels. Distinguish non-renewable from renewable energies and classify fossil fuels. Name the four main categories of non-renewable fuel and state which of these are fossil fuels. - ✔✔Nonrenewable: energy sources that cannot be replenished in a short period of time Renewable: energy sources that can be replenished naturally in a short period of time ***Fossil energy sources are non-renewable*** 4 non-renewable energy sources: (FF if fossil fuel) Crude oil- FF Natural gas- FF Coal- FF Uranium (nuclear energy) Know the percentage of fossil fuels that are used for transportation and the main type of fuels used for this purpose. - ✔✔28% of fossil fuels are used for transportation Gasoline- 56% Diesel- 21% Jet fuel- 11% Biofuels- 5% Natural gas- 3% Other- 3% Outline the life cycle stages of each of the major fossil fuels. At each stage identify at least two health or economic costs associated with that stage. - ✔✔*Extraction* Coal- surface or underground mining Petroleum- exploration, drilling, extraction Natural gas- drilling, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) *Processing/ Refining* Coal- cleaned and prepared Petroleum- refined Natural gas- cleaned and prepared *Transportation* Coal- 70% by freight Natural gas- mostly pipelines; some liquefied to export *Combustion* Describe the impact of each of the fossil fuels on carbon dioxide emissions. - ✔✔Coal: Accounts for about 40% of CO2 emissions Petroleum: Accounts for more than 90% of transportation fuel Describe the purpose of CAFE, when it was established and how it accomplishes its goals. Explain its advantages. - ✔✔*Purpose of CAFE:* to reduce energy consumption by increasing the fuel economy of cars. *When it was established:* 1975 *How it accomplishes its goals:* issued joint Final Rules for Corporate Average Fuel Economy and Greenhouse Gas emissions regulations for passenger cars and light trucks built in model years 2017 and beyond, and have also developed fuel efficiency and GHG emissions regulations for medium and heavy duty vehicles built in model years 2014 through 2018. *Advantages:* reduces petroleum consumption, increase the availability of alternative fuel vehicles, promote the advancement of innovative technologies, lower greenhouse gas emissions both helping to mitigate climate change and improve air quality Evaluate whether and how the valuation of ecosystem services might include transportation or health costs when those services are traded. - ✔✔Ecosystem services like coal and petroleum, that have more significant damage caused to the people that harvest them, could be priced higher as a way to discourage people from buying this capital. Define biofuel and describe how it differs from a fossil fuel. - ✔✔Biofuel: any fuel whose energy was obtained through biological carbon fixation, such as occurs through photosynthesis Differs from a fossil fuel, because fixation in a fossil fuel takes millions of years, while fixation in a biofuel takes a relatively short amount of time (days, months, years) Distinguish between renewable resources and "green" energy. - ✔✔Renewable resources: generated using hydroelectric, wind, and solar power "Green" energy: energy that is also good for the planet (and people) because it does not harm ecosystems, contribute to acid rain, or worsen global warming All green energy is considered renewable, but not all renewable energy is considered green Explain the relative popularity of fossil fuels compared to biofuels, naming factors that have changed through time. - ✔✔Petroleum based fuel originally won out over biofuel because of cost. This changed as fossil fuels become more expensive. Biofuels are getting cheaper and cheaper because of stricter regulations on fossil fuels Identify distinguishing characteristics of each generation of biofuels and predict their relative impacts. - ✔✔First generation biofuels: made from sugars, starches, oil, and animal fats that are converted into fuel Second generation biofuels: made from non-food crops or agricultural waste, like switch-grass or wood chips Third generation biofuels: made from algae or other quickly growing biomass sources Fourth generation biofuels: made from specially engineered plants or biomass that may have higher energy yields or lower barriers to cellulosic breakdown or are able to be grown on nonagricultural land or bodies of water *** it seems that the later the generation, the lesser their relative impact**** Distinguish between bioethanol and biodiesel. - ✔✔Bioethanol: produced from substances like corn, sugarcane, and the non-edible parts of plants. Biodiesel: produced from vegetable oils and animals fats, including waste products from food production Describe the economic, social and environmental consequences of growing corn for fuel. - ✔✔*Economic:* more expensive than fossil fuels, makes agricultural land more expensive, *Social:* more readily available than fossil fuels because we can keep making it, fertilizers used to grow corn aren't always eco-friendly *Environmental consequences:* renewable, uses lots of water to grow, take down forests in order to make room for crop fields Explain how agave or certain grasses may be a preferred biofuel source over corn. - ✔✔Agave are very water efficient and might not require irrigation at all Agave is more conducive for supporting local wildlife communities Describe the advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric power. - ✔✔Advantages: -does not emit global warming gasses or other air pollutants -Projects can manage flow releases from dams to ensure there is enough water in the river to support native species -Flows can also be scheduled to mimic natural flow patterns, which help transport sediment and mimic biological cues that would have been provided by the natural flow cycle Disadvantages: -Hydroelectric power depends on rivers and streams for generation, so there is varying amounts of availability across America depending on location -Less water in the river can also reduce oxygen levels which damage water quality -Dams can also block the migration of fish that swim upstream to reach spawning ground Name the type of system identified as GIAHS and its most important feature - ✔✔Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems most important feature: biodiversity Describe agroforestry, explaining its benefits compared to other agricultural systems. - ✔✔Agroforestry: land use systems in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboo etc.) are grown on the same piece of land with herbaceous plants and/or animals Benefits: Helps sustain agricultural production Improves household food security and incomes Explain what types of ecosystem services are preserved within agroforestry systems. - ✔✔Provisioning Food security Describe the location and extent of the Chagga home gardens. - ✔✔Location: the mountain slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro Extent: By 1984, the Chagga home gardens were estimated to cover 120,000 ha on the southern and eastern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro Describe how the composition of Chagga home gardens compares to native forests and the effects this has on niches and habitats of species. - ✔✔The Chagga home gardens mix shade trees, and coffee and banana crops (to be sold). These plants are mixed so that the shade requirements can be met. There is also a middle canopy of fruit and multipurpose trees/ shrubs Because of the arrangement, and the way that the home gardens are set up, the different arrangements let in different levels of light and humidity. Because of this, new niches are created, which allows for different species and crops to live in a relatively close proximity Explain how agroforestry could support community needs while acting to mitigate climate change. - ✔✔Offset carbon emissions by avoiding deforestation Describe challenges faced by the Tanzanian home gardens in maintaining the stability of the home garden and what types of support are needed - ✔✔As different cash crops become more popular, gardens have to be adjusted to have the best growing conditions for different crops As the population increases, there is less room for these gardens to exist *Support needed:* Organic soil fertility improvement procedures Organic control of pests and diseases Laws surrounding cutting trees and water conservation Describe how increases in population have changed our dependence on livestock as a food resource. - ✔✔The demand for meat and milk is projected to grow by 73 and 58 percent by 2050. Explain the impacts of livestock production on natural resources, particularly our plant resources. - ✔✔Straining natural resources needed to feed livestock The growing sector has to compete more with other sectors for these natural resources. State the percentage of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced by livestock and livestock products and explain the importance of reducing such emissions. - ✔✔15% In order of impact, state the main GHGs emitted as a result of the livestock sector of agriculture. - ✔✔Methane Nitrous Oxide Carbon Dioxide Evaluate how levels of GHG emissions correspond to amount of protein produced, citing examples. - ✔✔300kg CO2: 1kg of beef 165kg CO2: 1kg meat from small ruminants (goats) 100-112kg CO2: 1kg milk Create an outline illustrating the sources of GHG emissions from livestock according to activities related to the management of the animals and the products that result (e.g. meat). Name the gases that are most heavily represented in each part of the process. [synthesize rather than repeating each section] - ✔✔*Enteric fermentation:* Produced as part of animal's digestive process Methane *Manure management:* Produced when processing or storing manure Methane Nitrous Oxide *Feed production:* Produced when processing and transporting feed Carbon dioxide Indirect Nitrous Oxide emissions *Energy consumption:* Produced when making fertilizers, machinery use, processing and transport Carbon dioxide State the potential reduction predicted by the authors for reducing GHG emissions in the livestock sector of agricultural. Describe how manure management could play a role in this reduction, predicting how this could be done in conjunction with other agricultural activities. - ✔✔18-30% Manure management practices that ensure the recovery and recycling of nutrients and energy contained in manure and a more efficient use of energy along supply chains are also mitigation options. Describe the three common principles associated with Fair Trade standards. Name the practices required for agriculture under Fair Trade systems. - ✔✔*Social development* All members of the organization need to have access to democratic decision-making processes and as far as possible participate in the activities of the organization. The organization needs to be set up in a transparent way for its members and must not discriminate any particular member or social group. *Economic development* The Fairtrade Minimum Price aims to help producers cover the costs of sustainable production. The Fairtrade Premium is money for the producers or for the workers on a plantation to invest in improving the quality of their lives. Premium money in this sense is meant to improve the situation of workers, farmers and local communities in health, education, environment, economy etc. *Environmental development* Fairtrade standards include requirements for environmentally sound agricultural practices. Describe the economic disparity between coffee producers (farmers) and the top four roasters. - ✔✔Coffee farmers make less than $2 a day, while the top four roasters own coffee brands worth over $1 billion in annual sales Explain how the collapse of the International Coffee Agreement contributed to greater disparity between producing and consuming countries. - ✔✔*In 1989, two of the biggest producing and consuming nations (Brazil and the United States) ended their membership with the ICA, collapsing the agreement and making it impossible for the remaining countries to manage the global coffee market through export quotas *Companies rushed to dump their coffee on the world market, creating an oversupply situation with rock bottom prices *Farmers received less money for their work, yet at the same time the size of the global coffee market nearly doubled Describe some of the criticisms and risks of Fair Trade agreements. - ✔✔*The adoption of FLO's Fair Trade label by mainstream business organizations prompted arguments that these businesses are not truly committed to the values of Fair Trade and only participate in order to enhance their image as socially responsible enterprises *A second criticism holds that FLO failed to set up the original Fair Trade standards with the participation of its main beneficiaries: the producers (Reed 2009). Taylor et al. (2005) and Murray et al. (2003) agreed that producer participation in the network was a significant flaw in the system Recognize principles of Fair Trade established by the WFTO. Given an example, be able to evaluate whether that example follows Fair Trade principles. - ✔✔*Principle One:* Creating Opportunities for Economically Disadvantaged Producers *Principle Two*: Transparency and Accountability *Principle Three:* Fair Trading Practices *Principle Four:* Payment of a Fair Price *Principle Five:* Ensuring no Child Labour and Forced Labour *Principle Six:* Commitment to Non-Discrimination, Gender Equity and Women's Economic Empowerment, and Freedom of Association *Principle Seven*: Ensuring Good Working Conditions *Principle Eight*: Providing Capacity Building *Principle Nine:* Promoting Fair Trade *Principle Ten:* Respect for the Environment Describe the two main goals of the Fair Trade movement and evaluate how well it has achieved those goals. - ✔✔create development opportunities for marginalized producer communities, not through aid but by providing fair access to export markets Raising consumer-awareness in the North about the unjust and unfair practices and structures in international trade Explain how labeling initiatives led to changes in the objectives of Fair Trade. Predict how small producers have been positively and negatively impacted by changes in consumer perceptions of Fair Trade. - ✔✔Fair Trade certification and labeling initiatives are proceeding in a "zig zag" way, trying to keep together both the traditional Fair Trade movement (the base they don't want to lose) and large commercial licensees, who are repeatedly trying to control and water down Fair Trade principles. Positively: fair trade gaining momentum in popular culture Negatively: big companies trying to hop on the fair trade initiative and taking away business from the small companies, that fair trade was originally made for in the first place