Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7

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Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 CHAPTER 5 : 1. What are sense organs and sensory receptor cells? (lecture) Sense organs are organs that receive stimuli (eyes, ears, nose... , mouth, skin); Sensory receptor cells are specialized cells within the sense organs that send neural impulses to the brain. 2. Be able to define the terms “sensation” & "perception" (lecture & book) Sensation is information coming in to your brain. It is the elementary components of an experience (a bitter taste, patterns of light and dark). Perception is processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of sensations. 3. How does the Necker cube illustration the distinction between sensation & perception? (lecture/book) You are getting the same set of information but the brain is interpreting it in a different way. 4. What is meant by absolute threshold and difference threshold? (lecture/book) Absolute threshold is the smallest magnitude of a stimulus that can be detected (the weakest detectable stimulus). Difference threshold is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli. 5. What is Weber’s law as applied to the idea of a difference threshold? (lecture/book) The Difference Threshold between two things depends on the strength of the original stimulus (the stronger the original stimulus, the bigger the changes must be in order for them to be noticed, yet changes in weak stimuli are very noticeable) Example: If holding 100 lbs, must add 2 pounds to detect a difference. If holding 10 lbs., must add 2 ounces to detect a difference. 6. What is meant by sensory adaptation? (lecture/book) Sensory Adaptation: the perceived weakening of a sensation due to prolonged exposure to the stimulus Example: when you jump into cold water at first you feel freezing, but after a few moments, the water does not feel as cold (sensory receptors are fatigued and do not detect the stimulus as strong as they first did) 7. What is the definition of light? (lecture/book) Light is one form of electromagnetic energy; It’s composed of waves that give us hue, brightness, purity. 8. What is meant by hue, brightness, and purity? What determines hue/brightness/purity? (lecture/book) Hue is the wavelength of light (physical distance from one energy cycle to next) gives us color; Brightness is the intensity of light—changes in amplitude, determined by amount of light falling onStudy Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 object; Purity is the complexity of light (gives us pure versus paler color). Determined by mix of wavelengths present, influences saturation or richness of perceived colors. 9. Does the human visual spectrum represent a small or large part of the entire electromagnetic spectrum? What wavelengths (in nanometers) make up the human visual spectrum? (lecture/book) It’s a small part of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Wavelengths are 400-700nm. 10. Be able to identify where the pupil, cornea, lens, iris, retina, and fovea are in a diagram of the eye (lecture/book). Be able to describe what each of these parts of the eye are, and what they do. Cornea: Light first passes through the protective coating on the surface of the eye—participates in focusing process. Pupil: Light next travels through the opening of the iris (the black part) Iris: the colored part of the eye that regulates the amount of light that enters Lens: Light next travels through here, the transparent portion of the eye behind the pupil that focuses light onto the retina. Focusing happens by changing lens shape (muscles contract and lens is thicker and rounder when an object is close - accommodation) Retina: image falls here, sensory receptor cells (rods/cones) are here. Thin layer of tissue covering back of eye. Fovea: the central spot in retina where the cones are concentrated (images focused directly onto the fovea are clearest because of the high concentration of cones) 11. Be able to describe the process of light first entering the eye through the cornea and projecting an image onto the retina. Understand how the above parts of the eye are involved in this process (lecture/book). See above 12. What is accommodation as it relates to the lens? (lecture/book) Muscles contract and lens is thicker and rounder when an object is close 13. Be able to describe how receptor cells in the retina then translate the electromagnetic energy of light into the inner language of brain (electrochemical impulses). Specifically, what is photopigment and what does it do? (lecture/book)Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 Receptor cells change the light energy into electrochemical impulses – cells contain substance called photophigment, which reacts to light, and this chemical reaction leads to a neural impulse 14. Rods & cones are two types of receptor cells located in the retina. What sort of vision do "rods" provide? What about "cones"?(lecture/book) Rods: receptor cells that are more sensitive to light than cones – not much light needed to generate visual signals (located outside the center of the retina – 120 million cells each eye) Cones: receptor cells that code information about fine detail and the early processing of color, which need high levels of light to operate (located at the center of the retina – 6 million cells each eye) 15. What is a receptive field? (book) In vision, the portion of the retina that, when stimulated, causes the activity of higher order neurons to change. Which means it receives input from a group of receptor cells and responds only when a particular pattern of light shines across the retina. 16. What is the optic nerve? Where is it located in a diagram of an eye? Understand why it creates a biological blind spot. Do most people experience a hole in their visual field as a result of this blind spot? Why/why not? (book/lecture) Collection of nerve fibers that carries visual neural messages to the brain (the area where the optic nerve attaches contains no rods or cones and therefore is a blind spot). People normally experience no holes in their visual field; as part of its interpretation process, the visual system fills in the gaps to create a continuous visual scene. 17. What is dark adaptation? (book/lecture) Process of gradually adjusting to dark. Light reacts chemically with photopigments in receptor cells. In bright light, photopigments in the rods and cones have been bleached or broken down by light. Go into dark theater from the sun – enough photopigments must be regenerated by cells to detect low levels of light. Takes about 20-25 minutes 18. What are feature detectors? (book) Feature detectors are cells that respond best to very specific visual bars of light at particular orientations events, such as patterns of light and dark. 19. What is the trichromatic theory of color vision? (lecture/book) There are three different kinds of cones in the eye and that each respond to light in either red, blue, or green wavelengths therefore all sensations of colors result from stimulating a combination of these three cones. When just one receptor type is activated, we see one of the primary colors. All other colors require the activation of more than one typeStudy Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 20. Are the three primary paint colors that you grew up learning in art class different from the three primary light colors that we discussed in the trichromatic theory of color vision? What are the primary colors for light vs. paint? Why does mixing primary paint colors produce a different result than mixing primary light colors? (lecture) Primary light colors: red, blue, green Primary paint color: red, blue, yellow (magenta, cyan, yellow) If, for example, you are looking at a yellow paint blob, what you are seeing is a substance that has particles that ABSORB cyan and magenta, so only yellow wavelengths are bouncing off and being reflected back to your eye. Similarly, the other two primary paint colors absorb all but the color you see. So, when you mix together the 3 primary colors of paint in equal amounts, you get a substance that has particles that absorb all three primary colors in equal amounts, and thus reflects nothing back to your eye (you see black because no light is bouncing back to your eye). Looking directly at mixed light is very different (if all colors of light are mixed and projected towards your eye, you see white!) 21. How does the trichromatic theory of color vision explain color blindness (lecture/book) 8% of males are color blind; Extremely rare in females; Nature “makes a mistake” and fills someone’s red cones with green photopigment or green cones with red photopigment. People essentially only then have 2 instead of 3 cone receptors, so you can no longer discriminate between certain colors; Red, yellow, and orange might all just look yellow. 22. What is opponent-process theory? (lecture/book) What is meant by an after-image? Second level of color processing; In addition to three types of cones (one for red, blue and green), there are “opponent-process mechanisms”; Certain colors are specially linked. (Blue-yellow, Red-green, BlackWhite). After staring at one color for a long time we will see an “afterimage” of the “opposite” color; ex. Activation of a blue mechanism is accompanied by inhibition or decreased activation of the complementary mechanism! 23. What is meant by top-down and bottom-up processing (book/lecture). First, visual system analyzes actual sensory message (pattern of electromagnetic information on retina). This is BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING (process that starts with actual physical message). Second, knowledge, beliefs, and expectations are used to organize and interpret what we see (TOP- DOWN PROCESSING) 24. Be able to identify images that demonstrate top-down processing at work (book/lecture). 25. Be able to describe & identify examples of the 5 Gestalt principles of organization (book/lecture) a. Proximity: things that are close together are grouped together in the mind as if they belong together b. Closure: incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete because our brain fills in missing information c. Similarity: similar things are seen as being related d. Continuation: images are seen in ways that produce smooth continuation e. Common Fate: objects moving together are grouped togetherStudy Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 26. What is meant by the figure ground concept? (book/lecture) When we see something, we separate an image into a figure and a ground. Whatever is the center of our attention is the figure, whatever is in the background is the ground 27. Know/identify examples of the 4 monocular cues of depth perception (and know what is meant by a “monocular cue”) (lecture/book) 1. The brain knows that distant objects produce smaller images on the retina 2. Linear perspective: parallel lines receding far into the distance converge on a point. Closer together lines must be farther away. 3. Far away objects look blurry/slightly blue-ish 4. Can tell distance based on whether one object casts a shadow on another Monocular Cues: cues in the environment that suggest depth and can be seen by only one eye 28. Know/identify examples of the 2 binocular cues of depth perception (and know what is meant by a “binocular cue-use both eyes” 1. Convergence: both eyes angle inward as an object gets closer to us and converge 2. Retinal disparity: because each retina is a few inches apart, they have slightly different images and this helps with depth perception ex. Hold finger close to eyes and close right then left - finger jumps. 29. What is meant by perceptual constancy? Specifically, know/identify exams of brightness, color, size, and shape constancy (lecture/book) Perceptual Constancy: we perceive an object’s properties as unchanging, even though physical message delivered to eyes is changing a. Brightness Constancy: we understand the brightness of an object does not change even when the object is dimly lit b. Color Constancy: we understand that colors do not change despite different conditions of light c. Size Constancy: size does not change d. Shape Constancy: shape does not change 30. Understand how the Ames room, Ponzo, and Muller-Lyer optical illusions work. Why does the brain see certain objects within these pictures as bigger than others, when they really are not?? (lecture/book) The Ames Room uses sloped ceilings and floors to create misleading depth cues. Person on left is farther – makes smaller image on retina. Brain believes room is regularly shaped so concludes they must be same distance away… so explains the image size disparity by saying the girl on right must be bigger! Ponzo illusion uses linear perspective to trick the eye. These monsters leave identical sized images on the retina, but linear perspective tells us the one up top is further away…. So our brainStudy Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 says that means it must be bigger (if the retinal image is the same size despite being further!) Muller-Lyer illusion: Lines produce retinal images of identical sizes. Our experience with buildings makes us think a) is further away. Thus, if it produces the same size retinal image, our brain assumes it must be bigger. 31. Know the definition of sound, and how sound is different from light (lecture/book) Sound – energy, travels in waves, the physical message delivered to auditory system; Unlike light, it is MECHANICAL ENERGY; Requires a medium (like air/water) to travel through 32. What shape does sound take? (Lecture/book) A vibrating stimulus pushes air molecules into space, where they collide with other molecules 33. What is meant by pitch and what is meant by loudness, and what quality of sound determines each of these things? (lecture/book) Rate of vibrating stimulus determines frequency (# of times wave moves from peak to peak per second). Frequency determines pitch (how high or low something sounds). Pressure amplitude of wave determines intensity or loudness. 34. Pinna, tympanic membrane, middle ear, cochlea, basiliar membrane, auditory nerve – be able identify where they are in the ear, and describe what they all do. Be able to describe the process of a sound first entering the ear and producing a neural impulse. Understand how the above parts of the ear are involved in this process (lecture/book). Sound waves enter ear through pinna which helps capture sound (flap of tissue you call the ear!) Sounds funneled down auditory canal toward ear drum, or tympanic membrane, which responds to sound by vibrating. Vibration pattern of ear drum is transmitted through the middle ear (portion between ear drum and cohclea, containing three small bones that help intensify vibration pattern). Vibration pattern makes it to the inside the inner ear and the cochlea, where the sound energy gets translated to a neural impulse. Basilar membrane – base for sensory cells of hearing. Flexible membrane running through cochlea that through its movement displaces the auditory receptor cells, or hair cells, lying along it. As tiny hairs (cilia) are bent through movement of this membrane, receptor cells fire. Auditory nerve – neural impulses generated by the hair cells leave the cochlea along this nerve.Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 35. Be able to describe place theory and frequency theory (lecture/book). Place theory – we hear a particular pitch because certain hair cells are responding actively. “Place” refers to location of activated hair cell on basilar membrane. Frequency theory– pitch is determined by frequency of neural impulse traveling up auditory pathway. Brain relies on RATE at which cells fire neural impulses (not just location of cells that are activated). Higher rates of firing, higher pitch. 36. Be able to describe and identify examples of the figure-ground concept as applied to sound, and the idea of top down processing as applied to sound (lecture/book). Figure-ground concept: brain, faced with ambiguous auditory messages, seeks meaning where it can and tries to separate auditory messages into a figure and ground. “Kiss the sky”, “stress”, “life”. We use “top down processing”, like with vision, to bring certain organizational rules and expectations to the table. Once you expect to hear something, you definitely believe you heard it (song about Satan), Zimmerman’s racial slur. 37. What produces the sensation of touch? (lecture/book) TOUCH: Based on pressure, message delivered is mechanical. (Cells in skin are literally deformed due to pressure, which provides neural impulse) 38. What produces the sensation of temperature? (lecture/book) Cold and warm fibers respond to cooling and heating of skin by increasing neural impulse production.Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 39. Is experienced temperature just dependent on the actual temperature of an object? (lecture/book) Not just based on actual temperature of object! Plunging hand in a water bucket. 40. What is pain? (define?) Lecture/book Adaptive reaction that body generates in response to a stimulus that is causing tissue damage 41. Understand the gate control theory of pain (lecture/book) There are neural gates (endorphins) that control the transmission of pain impulses. The gate can be open or closed, and critical pain signals can be blocked from reaching higher neural centers when necessary 42. What is meant by phantom pain and how is it often treated? (lecture) Amputees often feel the amputated limb as if it is still there and sometimes feel pain in the missing limb. “muscle memory” – the neurons in charge of missing limb don’t know that it is gone – but eyes see that the limb is gone – mismatch between eyes and neurons. Treated with mirror-image theory. 43. What is meant by olfaction? (book/lecture) Smell is called olfaction. Airborne molecules enter the nose, receptor cells in upper region of nasal cavity contain tiny hairs, which bond with airborne molecules, and generate neural impulse. Then transferred to “olfactory bulb” in the brain for processing. 44. Be able to describe the fishy smell studies, and what they demonstrate about how smell influences interpretation of social environments, and how our interpretation of social environments influences what we smell! (lecture) Pumping a fishy smell into the lab made participants more “suspicious”. Made them less cooperative in trust-based economic exchanges! (Fart spray did not do the same! It was not just a general reaction to a bad/icky smell…). Making participants feel suspicious of the experimenter enhanced their ability to correctly label fishy smells and heightened detection sensitivity to low concentrations of fishy smells! 45. What are the four basic tastes? (lecture/book) Sweet, Bitter, Salty, Sour 46. What is a super taster and what is thought to make some people supertasters? (lecture) Supertasters… have relatively more taste buds than non tasters! Chapter 6:Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 1. Be able to define “consciousness.” What is it? (lecture/book) Subjective awareness of internal and external events. Basically - Everything of which we are aware at any given time—thoughts, feelings, sensations, external stimuli. 2. What is consciousness good for? (lecture/book) • Developing strategies for your own behavior • Think about what you want to say/do • Imagine how something in the future will turn out • Imagine what other people are thinking, predict their behavior—sometimes accurately, sometimes not • Consciousness is necessary to simulate the future 3. What is attention and how does it relate to consciousness? (lecture/book) The internal processes that set priorities for mental functioning. Attention is selective! (We don’t focus on everything at once). How does it relate to consciousness? We are only consciously aware of what we pay attention to. 4. What are the typical results of a dichotic listening task? How do they demonstrate the ability to attend to things selectively? (book/lecture) Turns out you are able to repeat what you selectively hear. 5. Does our ability to attend selectively mean our brains have totally shut out all other information entirely? (lecture/book) NO. Brain doesn’t shut off everything else – just doesn’t spotlight it. Unconscious continues to monitor it. 6. Know what is meant by the cocktail effect (lecture/book) Someone says your name at a party and you tune to that conversation even though you weren’t listening to it before. 7. Know how results of a dichotic listening task where message suddenly switches ears demonstrates that the brain is not actually shutting everything else out when it attends selectively (book/lecture) 30% of people continue to repeat meaningful sentence. 8. Multi-tasking: Can you typically perform two tasks at once in the same amount of time as it would take to perform each of them one at a time, one right after the other? What is meant by switching time cost? (lecture)Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 Nope, you can’t. Switching time cost: time wasted in trying to multi-task. 9. Are self-described multi-taskers better at performing tasks that come with constant distraction? (lecture) No, they are worse. 10. What is automaticity? (book/lecture) The fast and effortless processing that requires little or no focused attention. Not under conscious control. 11. How do divided attention tasks demonstrate whether something is automatic? (lecture/book) Divided attention tasks are used to measure whether something is automatic. If one task fails to interfere with the other, it is not under conscious control. 12. What are subliminal influences? Does the research show that the influence of subliminal messages is probably strong or weak? (book/lecture) Messages so hard to detect, they totally bypass conscious awareness. Influence is weak. 13. What is visual neglect? (lecture/book) Damage to right parietal lobe of cerebral cortex produces tendency to ignore things appearing toward left side of body. 14. What is ADHD? (book/lecture) Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder -Trouble paying attention for long periods -Can’t finish tasks -Most common in school-aged children -Hyperactive/impulsive -Squirmy/fidgety -Answer questions before questions are completely asked 15. Is sleep considered to be an altered state of consciousness? (lecture/book) Yes 16. What is a circadian rhythm? (lecture/book) Transition from sleep to waking is an example of a Circadian Rhythm.Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 17. Be able to describe the characteristics of the 4 stages of sleep. Know what is meant by theta waves, alpha waves, sleep spindles, and K complex. Understand what happens to the body during each of these stages (book/lecture) Non-REM Sleep Cycles: o Stage 1: Lightest sleep – some claim thoughts are simply drifting. Theta waves begin, which are a bit lower in amplitude and more irregular than the alpha waves experienced when you are relaxed/drowsy just prior to sleep (theta waves are similar to awake waves, but still distinct) o Stage 2: Somewhat more deeply asleep (mid-sleep). Brain still reacts to loud noises. Sleep spindles occur – short bursts of activity interrupting theta waves. K Complex occurs – sudden, sharp, intermittent waveforms o Stage 3: Deep Sleep – if woken up, act confused. Delta Waves 20% = More synchronized slow wave/deep sleep begins. Heart and breathing slow and regular o Stage 4: Deepest sleep. Delta waves reach nearly 100%. Blood pressure and brain activity at lowest points in 24 hour period 18. Know how far into sleep REM sleep typically happens, and understand the basic characteristics of REM sleep (lecture/book) 70-90 minutes into sleep cycle. Rapid eye movement sleep: called active sleep or paradoxical sleep; 20- 25% of a night’s sleep. INTERNALLY: Intense brain activity; brain temperature rises rapidly; epinephrine release leads to increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration. EXTERNALLY: Body appears calm, Large muscles become paralyzed, Eyes dart around, Dreaming occurs in 80% of people (but you can also dream in other stages). During REM sleep, the brain conducts: Consolidation of learning and memory (avoid all night studying!), Perceptual or motor skills increase after 8-10 hours of sleep. 19. Understand the basic pattern of sleep cycles during a typical night’s sleep. How much time is typically spent in REM sleep? (lecture/book) 20-25% night sent in REM. 20. What are some theories about the function of sleep (repairing/restoring, survival value) (lecture/book) Repairing and restoring – put body and brain functions “back in order”, repair disorganized circuits, restore depleted resources, consolidate learning/memory. Survival value – we aren’t efficient at night 21. What happens when people are sleep deprived? (lecture/book) a. Difficulty concentrating b. General irritabilityStudy Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 c. Decreases cognitive functioning d. Impairs learning e. Long-term health effects (immune system impairment) f. Technically could be fatal (animal studies) g. Causes many accidents and fatalities 22. What is REM rebound? (book/lecture) After a period of REM sleep deprivation: o Intensity and length of REM sleep increases o Often associated with unpleasant dreams or nightmares o Alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, and LSD use suppress REM sleep and results in REM rebound 23. About how much sleep do people need each night? (book/lecture) About 8 hours 24. What are the differences between REM dreams, non REM dreams (lecture/book), and Lucid dreams (just lecture)? • REM Dream o Continually dreaming during REM sleep o REM dreams have story-like qualities o More vivid, visual, and emotional than NREM dreams • Non-REM Dream o Less frequent than REM dreams o Less memorable than REM dreams • Lucid Dreams o A dream where individual is aware of dreaming and whose content the individual is often able to influence while dreaming 25. Know the 4 reasons why psychologists think we might dream (lecture/book). Be able to identify examples of each. a. Wish fulfillment (to satisfy forbidden urges/desires) – Sigmund Freud b. Activation-Synthesis – dreaming is consequence of random activity in brain. Cells in hindbrain activate higher centers of brain during REM sleep. Might be an exercise of brain circuitry, or result of activity in room. Brain creates story to make sense of signals it receives. (maybe this is why dreams are so whacky!) c. Problem-Focused Dream Interpretation (dreams are for solving problems) d. Dealing with threats (evolutionary psych – dreams are to practice dealing with threat) 26. Are people certain of which theory of dreaming is correct? (book/lecture) NOStudy Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 27. Specifically, for Freud’s theory of wish fulfillment, make sure you know what is meant by latent content and manifest content (lecture/book). Be able to identify examples of Freud’s idea of dream interpretation. a. Manifest Content i. The content of a dream as recalled by the dreamer b. Latent Content i. The underlying meaning of the dream 28. Know what is meant by dyssomnia and parasomnia (lecture/book) • Dyssomnias (problems connected with amount, timing, and quality of sleep) • Parasomnias (disturbances during sleep) 29. Understand the potential causes and symptoms of the following dyssomnias: insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy. (lecture/book) • Insomnia o Difficulty starting or maintaining sleep o Must be chronic (at least a month) o Due to stress, emotional issues, alcohol, drug use, medical conditions, or learning • Hypersomnia o Too much sleep. Feel tired all the time o Genetic factors, medical issues, sleep apnea (episodes of not breathing during night) • Narcolepsy o Sudden extreme sleepiness. “Sleep attacks”. Enter REM directly. o Genetics? 30. Understand the potential causes and symptoms of the following parasomnias: Sleepwalking, night terrors, nightmares (lecture/book), and sleep talking (just lecture). • Somnambulism (sleepwalking) o occurs during partial arousal from stage 4 sleep • Sleep terror o happens during partial arousal from stage 4 sleep o usually begins with a piercing scream • Nightmares o are frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep • Somniloquy (Sleeptalking) o occurs during any sleep stage o is more frequent among children 31. What are psychoactive drugs and why do people take them? (lecture/book) Any substance that affects behavior and mental processes through alterations of conscious awareness. People take drugs to: Relieve pain/discomfortStudy Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 Alter consciousness Psychological escape For recreation/fun 32. What are depressants? What do depressants do in low and high doses, and what are some examples of depressants? (lecture/book) Slow down the CNS, inhibit neural activity Low-Moderate Levels: calm, drowsy, reduced anxiety and inhibitions High Levels: insensitivity to pain and other senses Overdose: irregular heartbeat, death Common “downers”: alcohol, valium, xanax, 33. What are stimulants? What do stimulants do in low and high doses, and what are some examples of stimulants? (lecture/book) Speed up the Central Nervous System Low-Moderate Levels: excited, confident, euphoric High Levels: anxious, jittery, hyper Overdose: convulsions, heart failure, death Common “uppers”: caffeine, meth, cocaine, nicotine, speed, crack, crank 34. What are opiates? What are some examples of opiates? (lecture/book) Pain relievers Derived from the “poppy” plant Mimics the body’s endorphines that are involved in reducting pain Effects vary: euphoria, reduced anxiety Common “pain killers”: opium, heroine, methadone 35. What are hallucinogens? What are some examples of hallucinogens? (lecture/book) Disrupt normal thought process a. Reactions vary: sometimes pleasant, sometimes not b. Some produce visual hallucinations (LSD, Mushrooms, peyote) 36. What is hypnosis? Is hypnosis the same as sleep? Are “weak minded” people more easily hypnotized? What are the two theories that explain heightened suggestibility (dissociation and role playing)? (book) Induced altered consciousness; state of deep relaxation; associated with heightened “suggestibility”; Dissociation: a splitting of conscious awareness; Social Role Playing: acting out suggestions. No, weak minded people are not more easily hypnotized.Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 37. What is meditation? What are some benefits of meditation? (book) Induced altered consciousness; state of “alert-relaxation”; It’s when the participant himself seeks to manipulate awareness and performs some metal exercise like repeating a mantra. Improves immune system, lowers BP and cholesterol, creates a general feeling of “well-being” Chapter 7: 1. What is the definition of learning? (lecture/book). Be able to identify from examples what is learning and what is not learning. A relatively permanent change in behavior, or potential behavior, that results from experience. 1. Focus is on observable behavior 2. Behavior change must be something that happens as a reaction to experience or result of practice, so we can act more sensibly in future 2. What is meant by orienting, habituation, and sensitization? (lecture/book) Understand how these concepts are all related to the process of how people notice a stimulus in the environment and learn to ignore it. How are habituation and sensitization both adaptive? Orienting – an inborn tendency to notice and respond to novel events. Habituation - Decline in tendency to respond to event that has become familiar. Sensitization - increased response to an event that has been repeated. 3. Understand that classical conditioning refers to a process by which people notice a stimulus in the environment and learn WHAT IT SIGNALS OR PREDICTS, or a process by which people learn relationships between events that occur outside of their control (lecture/book). Be able to identify examples of classical conditioning. A set of procedures used to investigate how organisms learn about the signaling properties of events. Involves learning relations between events that occur outside one’s control (learning relationships between conditioned/unconditioned stimulus). 4. Be able to describe Pavlov’s dog studies. Understand how they are an example of classical conditioning. (lecture/book)Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 5. In classical conditioning, know the shorthand for US, UR, CS, and CR and be able to identify the various stimuli in an example i.e. Unconditioned Stimulus = US, Unconditioned Response = UR, conditioned stimulus=CS, conditioned response=CR, Etc. (lecture/book) i. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): stimulus that can elicit an unlearned response (an instinctual stimulus) ii. Unconditioned Response (UR): an unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (an instinctual or inborn reaction) iii. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): stimulus that elicits a response as a result of being paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (a learned stimulus) iv. Conditioned Response (CR): response that is similar or identical to the Unconditioned Response that is elicited by a Conditioned Stimulus (a learned response) 6. In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus should function as a _____?______that the unconditioned stimulus is about to occur (lecture/book) Signal 7. Know the 4 things necessary to form the CS-US connection in classical conditioning (lecture/book). Know what is meant by simultaneous conditioning, backward conditioning, and blocking, and understand how these terms relate to what is necessary to form the CS-US connection (lecture/book) • The CS must provide useful information about the arrival of the US. • CS usually needs to come before the US (simultaneous conditioning and backward conditioning usually don’t work). • US needs to follow CS closely in time • CS must provide new information about the US (blocking occurs when something prevents somebody from learning that a CS is paired with a US by ensuring that the CS contains no new information). 8. Understand how the Little Albert experiment worked and know what the experiment demonstrated (lecture/book). Know what the US, UR, CS, and CR were in this experiment.Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 paired a white rat with a frightening noise until the baby was conditioned to be afraid of the white rat on site (after 7 pairings) What’s the Unconditioned Stimulus? Loud Noise What’s the Unconditioned Response? Fear What’s the Conditioned Stimulus? White rat What’s the Conditioned Response? Fear 9. Why does classical conditioning work? What was the early theory and what is the current cognitive view? (lecture/book) • Early theory: We simply “shift” unconditioned response over to the conditioned stimulus (then why do rats simply freeze in response to a noise signaling a shock instead of jumping, like they do when they are actually shocked?) • Cognitive view: We learn relationships between events, and we learn that some events signal the upcoming occurrence of others… and we respond appropriately. 10. Know what Second-order Conditioning is and be able to identify an example (lecture/book) A conditioned stimulus is used to condition a second neutral stimulus. For little “Albert,” after conditioning him to be afraid of the rat, we might pair the rat (instead of the loud noise) with a banana to make him afraid of the banana. For Pavlov, he first taught dog that a ticking metronome sound (conditioned stimulus) signaled meat (unconditioned stimulus). Then, he presented a black square (second order stimulus) prior to presentation of the metronome (conditioned stimulus), and soon dogs drooled (conditioned response) in response to the black square! 11. Be familiar with stimulus Generalization and stimulus discrimination and know how they apply to classical conditioning (lecture/book) Stimulus generalization: Responding to a new stimulus in a manner similar to the response produced by an established conditioned stimulus Stimulus Discrimination: Responding differently to a new stimulus than how one responds to an established conditioned stimulus. 12. What is Extinction as it relates to classical conditioning? (lecture/book) Extinction: the process of unlearning a learned response because the original source of learning has been removed from the environment. Classical Conditioning: extinction occurs when a CS is no longer paired with a US. 13. What is conditioned inhibition? (book/lecture)Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 You learn that an event signals absence of an unconditioned stimulus. E.g. Dogs are trained to drool in response to a bell because every time you ring bell, you then bring food. Sometimes you ring the bell and also turn a lamp on. When you do that, you DON’T bring food. They now only drool when the bell rings without the light. They stop drooling when the bell rings and the light also turns on (light is conditioned inhibitor for food – signals that food is NOT coming) 14. Know the meaning of Spontaneous Recovery (book) Spontaneous recovery is the recovery of an extinguished response when the conditioned stimulus is presented again, after a delay. 15. What is counter conditioning? (just lecture) The process of reversing classical conditioning by pairing the conditioned stimulus (CS) with a new positive unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a positive (instead of negative) conditioned response (CR). For little “Albert” we might pair the rat with cookies until he is no longer afraid of the rat. Common treatment for phobias 16. Know what is meant by operant conditioning and the law of effect (lecture/book) Learning that OUR OWN ACTIONS (as opposed to ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI we do not control) LEAD TO CERTAIN OUTCOMES. Learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. Law of effect: If a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened. If a response in a particular situation is followed by an unsatisfying consequence, it will be weakened. 17. Make sure you know how operant conditioning is DIFFERENT from classical conditioning (I.e. think about learning what an event PREDICTS versus learning about the consequences of our OWN BEHAVIOR (lecture/book) In classical conditioning, you learn that the occurrence of some event (an event that you do not control), predicts a certain outcome (i.e. a bell ringing means food will arrive). In operant conditioning, you learn that if you OPERATE on your own environment in certain ways, your own behavior will produce certain outcomes (so you change your behavior accordingly). 18. Understand how BF Skinner used operant conditioning to train pigeons (lecture/book) Turn, Peck, get food. 19. Within operant conditioning, know what is meant by the stimulus situation, the discriminative stimulus, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination (lecture/book) The law of effect only applies to responses that are rewarded in particular situations (raising your hand might be rewarded in a classroom but not at the family dinner table) People learn that certain behaviors are rewarded in certain stimulus situations.Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 The discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for a response to be rewarded. Stimulus generalization of a discriminative stimulus – doing the behavior in a similar situation expecting a reward Stimulus discrimination of a discriminative stimulus – learning that in different scenarios, the same behavior does not produce a reward 20. Within operant conditioning, be able to define punishment and reinforcement. In addition, know the difference between positive vs negative punishment and positive vs negative reinforcement. Be able to identify, from an example, which of these 4 things is going on (lecture/book). Reinforcement: Response consequences that increase the likelihood of responding in a similar way Punishment: Response consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again. Positive: An event is presented or added after a behavioral response (to either punish or reinforce) Negative: An event is removed or taken away after a behavioral response (to either punish or reinforce) a. Positive Reinforcement – An event is presented after a response, increasing the likelihood of that response b. Negative Reinforcement – An event is removed after a response, increasing the likelihood of that response c. Positive Punishment – An event is presented after a response, lowering the likelihood of that of that response d. Negative Punishment – An event is removed after a response, lowering the likelihood of that response 21. What is a primary reinforcer? (lecture/book?) Things that are innately reinforcing (Examples: food, warmth, sexual gratification) 22. What is a conditioned reinforcer? (lecture/book) Reinforcers that are learned (Examples: money, prizes, grades, applause). Secondary/conditioned reinforcers are learned through classical conditioning 23. What are some cautions to consider when using punishment? (lecture/book) a. Do NOT rely heavily on physical punishment (research shows it creates worse behavior in children) b. Be careful about yelling as a form of punishment – sometimes it is actually a reinforcer because it gives a kid desired attention! c. Make sure to use reinforcement to instill the appropriate behavior that will take the place of the inappropriate behavior (punishment just teaches what not to do…. Not what someone *should* do instead) d. Punish behaviors and not the person (stop punishment when the behavior stops)Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 24. Within operant conditioning, what is a continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement schedule? (lecture/book) Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: the reinforcer is given every time. Not always practically possible. Partial Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcement delivered only some of the time. 25. Know the 4 different partial reinforcement schedules of operant conditioning, be able to identify examples of each, and know how well each one tends to work and why. What is meant by a post reinforcement pause and how does this relate to a fixed ratio schedule? (lecture/book) • Fixed Ratio Schedule: the reinforcer is given only after a specified number of responses (Example: a seamstress gets a paycheck each time she makes 6 dresses). Effectively produces steady work, but often also produces a postreinforcement pause (after getting paid for the 6th dress, I know I have 6 more to go before getting paid again, so I will pause for a break before getting started on the next 6) • Variable Ratio: the reinforcer is given after a varying number of responses (Example: reinforcement might be delivered after 1st dress, then next time after 3rd dress, then next time after 6th dress.) More effective because you don’t know when reward is coming (less pausing – the very next response might always result in another reward). Extinction is more difficult. Gambling! • Fixed Interval Schedule: the reinforcer is given after a fixed amount of time instead of a fixed amount of responses (Example: every 5 minutes, a person arrives to give treats to any dog that is doing tricks). Not very effective because people just start to increase their responding as the “reward moment” approaches (why bother doing tricks rapidly during minutes 1 through 4?) • Variable Interval Schedule: the reinforcer is given after a variable amount of time (Example: someone arrives to give treats to any dog that is doing tricks on average every 5 minutes, but at unpredictable intervals – sometimes after 30 seconds, sometimes after 7 minutes, etc.) More effective because people respond more consistently – don’t know when reward is coming. o Continuous reinforcement is great for initial learning, but is not practical to do all the time o Fixed Ratio – effective, but there is usually a pause after the reinforcer is given o Fixed Interval – not so good. Responses increase only as the fixed time approaches o Variable Ratio & Variable Interval – very effective. 26. What is meant by shaping? How did Skinner use shaping to train pigeons? (lecture/book) Rewarding a series of approximate behaviors until you get the behavior you want. Give treats to pigeons when they accidently turn, then give treat when they turn more, a little more, a little more, etc. 27. Understand some of the biological constraints on learning (book) Biological tendencies connected with feeding and food reinforcement interefere with certain responses. Also we may be predisposed to learn relationships between certain stimuli and outcomes like seeing a picture of a snake and being shocked or scared because of evolution. 28. What is meant by observational learning? (lecture/book)Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 Learning by observing the experience of others. 29. What is meant by modeling? (lecture/book) Bandura stressed that people learn by watching others long before there is any chance for the behavior to occur and be reinforced. 30. What were Bandura’s Bobo doll studies and what did they demonstrate? (lecture/book) Children modeled what they saw (beat up the doll, were nice to the doll or were neutral to the doll). What you DO is far more powerful than what you SAY! 31. What is meant by vicarious reinforcement and punishment? (lecture/book) Responses acquired through observational learning are particularly strengthened through vicarious reinforcement and punishment (when we actually see the people we are modeling being punished/reinforced for what they do) Chapter 8 Part 1 – only tested over pages 236-252. The rest of chapter 8 is pushed back to exam 3. 1. What is the definition of memory? (book) The capacity and structures used for the retention and retrieval of information. 2. What is encoding? (book/lecture) How memories are initially acquired 3. What is storage? (book/lecture) How memories are maintained 4. What is retrieval? (book/lecture) How stored memories are recovered/translated into performance 5. What is sensory memory? What is meant by an icon and an echo? (book/lecture) After a stimulus disappears, the brain retains very briefly the raw sensations. Sensory memory is an auditory (echo) or visual (icon) lingering sensory memory trace. By keeping an exact copy of the environmental message, the brain has slightly longer to review information before perception takes place. Sensory memory has a very large capacity. Material stays here only briefly (about ½ sec for visual sensations, 2 sec for auditory)Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 6. Be able to identify examples of how iconic and echoic memory might be measured (book/lecture) Iconic: the three rows of letters. Echoic: people reported hearing the tone for a longer time. 7. What is short-term memory? (book/lecture) Also called working memory. Very limited capacity (7 +/- 2 chunks of information) (memory span). Very limited time (approx 30 sec). Not exact copy of environmental stimuli. Use acoustic code to keep things in short-term memory (inner voice). Can keep info here longer with maintenance rehearsal. Can store more info with chunking 8. What is meant by the inner voice vs. the inner eye, and how do these ideas relate to short-term memory? (lecture/book) Inner voice: repeating something in your head to remember it. Errors that happen are acoustic. Inner eye: you form an image in your brain rather than a sound. 9. What is rehearsal? (book) Process of internal repetition, assuming you have the time and resources to continue the rehearsal process. Without rehearsal, short term memories are quickly forgotten. 10. What is memory span? Research has shown that short-term memory span is typically how many items? (book/lecture) Number of items a person can recall in the exact order of presentation on half of the tested memory trials—typically seven (plus or minus two items). 11. What is chunking? (book/lecture) Involves rearranging the incoming information into meaningful or familiar patterns, called chunks. 12. What is long-term memory? (book/lecture) Practically unlimited storage. Detail level varies. Info may be permanent, but can be distorted. Can feed back into STM. 13. What are episodic memories? (book/lecture) Memory of things that we have personally experienced (personal episodes). 14. What are semantic memories and procedural memories? (book/lecture) Semantic memory—memory of general knowledge, facts, word meanings. Procedural memories: memories of common physical procedures/muscle memory; mostly accessed implicitly (without thinking); highly robust to amnesia.Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 15. What is elaboration? (book/lecture) An encoding process that involves the formation of connections between to-be remembered input and other information in memory. 16. What is visual imagery? (book) Forming a mental image. 17. Know the 7 different methods for improving the storage of information in long term memory (book/lecture) a. Think about the meaning of what you want to remember. If I showed you “bee” and asked you to answer “does this word rhyme with “me?” and then asked you to recall the word a day later, you’d be less likely to remember than if I asked you to think about the meaning of “bee” (is it an insect?”) b. Notice relationships (take advantage of all the information already in your memory!). Menu friends table napkins c. Notice differences: Observe how new information is BOTH similar to information already in memory and DIFFERENT (by relating it to prior information, you take advantage of what you already know… by elaborating on it noting how it is different, you form a unique memory record) d. Form mental pictures e. Space your repetitions (do something else in between). You are more likely to think about it in a different way each time, and have more memory records that are more elaborate and distinctive f. Consider sequence position (primacy/recency effect: whatever comes first and last is most remembered) g. Test yourself (don’t just read it or look at it in front of you) 18. Thinking about “spacing your repetitions” (number 5 on the list from lecture). What are the implications of this principle for late-night cram sessions? (book/lecture) Crams don’t work since your brain doesn’t have time to process the information. 19. Thinking about number 6 on the list, “consider sequence position”, what is the primacy effect and what is the recency effect? (book/lecture) Whatever comes first and last is always remembered. 20. What is a mnemonic device? (book) Are special mental tricks that were developed thousands of years ago as memory aids. 21. What is a flashbulb memory? Be able to identify examples of flashbulb memories. (book/lecture)Study Guide Exam 2 Psy 120 042, complete through Chapter 7 Are highly rich, highly detailed memories of a significant moment in your life. However, while are often very certain of them, we are not often accurate. [Show More]

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