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PRN1409 / PRN 1409 Exam 4 | Client-Centered Care III
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https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07
PRN1409 / PRN 1409 Exam 4 | Client-Centered Care III
Review | Verified Questions & Answers | (Latest
2026/2027 Update)100% Correct Solutions | Grade A |
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Q: What are the functions of the musculoskeletal system?
Answer - Support and movement - Protection of internal organs - Gives shape
Q: What are the functions of skeletal muscles?
Answer - Movement of blood - Maintain body temperature
Q: What is stored in the bones?
Answer - Fat - Calcium
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Q: What is included in the axial skeleton?
Answer - Skull - Vertebral column - Ribs - Sternum
Q: What makes up the appendicular skeleton?
Answer - Arms - Legs - Pectoral girdle (shoulder) - Pelvic girdle (hip)
Q: What are the two types of bone tissue?
Answer - Compact bone - Spongy bone
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Q: What is the shaft of the long bone called?
Answer
Diaphysis
Q: What are the ends of long bones called?
Answer
Epiphysis
Q: What is found in the diaphysis?
Answer
Yellow bone marrow (which stores fat)
Q: What is found in epiphysis?
Answer
Red bone marrow (source of all blood cells)
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Q: What is bone tissue made of?
Answer - Calcium - Phosphorous salts
Q: What is an osteocyte?
Answer
A bone cell
Q: What are osteoblasts?
Answer
Cells that form bone tissue
Q: What are osteoclasts?
Answer
Cells that break down bone tissue to release calcium and phosphorous into the blood stream
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Q: What is calcium homeostasis?
Answer
A mechanism by which the body maintains adequate calcium levels
Q: What is osteoporosis?
Answer
A medical condition where bone tissue is porous and brittle
Q: What can osteoporosis lead to?
Answer
Fractures
Q: What are some treatments for osteoporosis?
Answer - Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) - Calcium in diet - Weight-bearing exercise
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Q: What is a joint?
Answer
Where two bones come together
Q: What is a synovial joint?
Answer
A freely movable joint with fluid between the cartilage
Q: What is a fibrous joint?
Answer
An immovable joint
Q: What does a ligament do?
Answer
Connect bone to bone
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Q: What does a tendon do?
Answer
Connect bone to muscle
Q: What are the types of synovial joints? What do they do?
Answer - Ball-and-socket (rotation and movement in several planes) - Hinge (movement in a single plane) - Pivot (rotate)
Q: What is one type of fibrous joint?
Answer
Sutures (immovable joints between skull bones)
Q: What is an example of a ball-and-socket joint?
Answer
Shoulder
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Q: What is an example of a hinge joint?
Answer
Knee
Q: What is an example of a pivot joint?
Answer
Elbow (radius and ulna)
Q: What is a sprain?
Answer
When a ligament is over-stretched or torn
Q: What is a strain?
Answer
An injury to a muscle or tendon
Q: What is osteoarthritis?
Answer
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A degenerative joint disease
Q: What is rheumatoid arthritis?
Answer
An autoimmune disease that causes inflammation of the synovial membrane
Q: What is a dislocation?
Answer
Displacement of a bone from its normal position
Q: What are some muscle functions?
Answer - Voluntary movement - Control of body openings - Maintain posture and joint stability - Communication - Maintain body temperature
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What are the three types of muscles?
Answer - Cardiac - Smooth - Skeletal
Where is cardiac muscle found? What does it consist of?
Answer
It is found in the heart and consists of striated, branched cells
Where is smooth muscle found? What is it made of?
Answer
It is found in internal organs and is made up of long, spindle-shaped cells that are formed in
sheets
Where is skeletal muscle found? What does it consist of?
Answer
It is found attached to bones and consists of cells that are long striated fibers running the length
of the muscle
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What happens when a muscle contracts?
Answer
It produces movement at the joint
What does it mean when muscles work against each other?
Answer
They are in antagonistic pairs for movement in opposite directions
What is a muscle?
Answer
A bundle of muscle fibers
What is a muscle fiber?
Answer
A bundle of myofibrils (microfilaments)
*This is the functional unit of a muscle
What are myofibrils?
Answer
Fused muscle cells that have light and dark bands
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What are myofibrils made of?
Answer
Sarcomeres
What is a sarcomere? What is it made of?
Answer
A contractile unit in myofibril that is made of thin filaments (actin) and thick filaments (myosin)
What is the sliding filament theory?
Answer - The sarcomeres shorten - In the presence of calcium, myosin binds tot he actin filaments - The myosin head flexes inward and backward, causing the actin filament to shorten - In the presence of ATP, the myosin head detaches and then reattaches at a new position on the
actin filament - The cycle repeats to continue the shortening (contraction) of the muscle
What is a motor neuron?
Answer
A neuron and all the muscle fibers that it stimulates
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What are the neurons and muscle fibers separated by?
Answer
A synaptic cleft (gap)
What must cross the gap to stimulate the muscle fibers?
Answer
A neurotransmitter
What is the neurotransmitter?
Acetylcholine
What are the four essential functions of the digestive system? - Ingestion (taking in food) - Digestion (breaking down food into smaller molecules) - Absorption (moving nutrient molecules into the blood) - Elimination (indigestible waste leaves the digestive system)
In what order does food go through the digestive tract?
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
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What is physical digestion?
Teeth mechanically tearing and grinding food
What is chemical digestion?
When the salivary glands release the enzyme amylase into the mouth to break down
carbohydrates
What is bolus?
The ground, partially digested food material that is swallowed
What is a common passage behind the mouth?
The pharynx
What two systems is the pharynx a part of?
The digestive and respiratory systems
As food flows into the esophagus, what is this process assisted by?
The epiglottis, which covers the glottis, opening to the trachea
What is peristalsis?
The rhythmic contractions of the esophagus, which moves food into the stomach
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What is the stomach?
The organ in which proteins on food are digested.
What is a sphincter?
A ring of muscle at the top of the stomach that acts as a valve to keep fluid from going back up
the esophagus
What happens during heartburn?
Digestive acid moves into the esophagus
What does the pyloric sphincter do?
It holds food in the stomach until enzymes and acid can begin protein digestion and then
regulates the flow of digested food into the intestine
What two things accomplish the digestion of proteins? - The low pH of the stomach - The enzyme pepsin
What is pepsin released as? What is it activated by?
It is released as the inactive form pepsinogen and activated by the presence of HCI (hydrochloric
acid)
What is an ulcer caused by?
A bacterial infection (H. pylori)
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What is chyme?
The digested food material entering the small intestine
What are the two functions of the small intestine? - Additional digestion of food material (lipids, along with any still undigested material) - Absorption of nutrients
What is the absorption of nutrients aided by?
Folds of villi
Why do the villi have microvilli?
To greatly increase their surface area for absorption
What three additional organs assist the small intestine? - Liver - Gallbladder - Pancreas
What are the many functions of the liver? - Removal of poisons and toxins from the blood - Regulation of blood cholesterol - Destruction of old red blood cells
https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07 - Production of bile to emulsify fats - Storage of glucose as glycogen - Storage of iron
When does jaundice occur?
When there is an excess concentration of bile pigments in the blood
What is hepatitis?
A viral infection of the liver
What happens during cirrhosis?
Liver tissue changes to become fatty and then non-functional scar tissue
What does the gallbladder do?
It stores excess bile
What does the pancreas function as?
Both an endocrine and exocrine gland
What does the endocrine function of the pancreas involve?
The secretion of insulin and glucagon into the blood stream
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What does the exocrine function of the pancreas involve?
The secretion of pancreatic juice into the small intestine
What does the large intestine do?
It reabsorbs water, salts, and some vitamins
What is the cecum?
A blind pouch at the beginning of the large intestine
What is the appendix?
An extension of the cecum (contains WBCs)
What digests the remaining material in the large intestine?
Bacteria that is stored in the rectum
What are some problems occurring in the colon? - Constipation/diarrhea - Polyps - Colon cancer - Diverticulosis/diverticulitis
What is a nutrient used for? - Energy
https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07 - Growth/development - Metabolism
What are the five classes of essential nutrients? - Carbohydrates - Lipids - Proteins and amino acids - Vitamins - Minerals
What is an essential nutrient?
It must be supplied by the diet (the body is not able to produce it)
What are macronutrients?
Nutrients that are needed in large amounts
What are some examples of macronutrients? - Carbohydrates - Lipids - Proteins
What are micronutrients?
Nutrients that are needed only in small amounts
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What are some examples of micronutrients? - Vitamins - Minerals
What do carbohydrates include? - Sugars - Starches - Fiber
What are some examples of sugars?
Glucose (monosaccharide) and sucrose (disaccharide)
What is starch?
A polymer used by plants to store glucose
What is fiber?
An indigestible carbohydrate derived from plant material
Why is insoluble fiber important?
It stimulates movement of feces in the bowel
What are some examples of insoluble fiber?
https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07 - Apples - Beans - Cabbage
What does soluble fiber do?
It binds to compounds in the intestine (cholesterol) to deter their absorption and enhance their
excretion
What are some examples of soluble fiber? - Oats - Oranges - Strawberries
What are lipids?
Fats
What are lipids used for? - Cell membrane structure - Insulation against cold - Energy - Cushion organs - Synthesize steroid hormones
What are saturated fats?
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Fats with no double bonds
What are unsaturated fats?
Fats that have double bonds
What is an example of unsaturated fats?
Plant oils
What are trans fats?
Plant oils that have been hydrogenated to change them from unsaturated to saturated
What is an example of saturated fats?
Animal fats
What do saturated fats increase the risk of?
Cardiovascular disease
What is atherosclerosis?
Artery blockage due to plaque build up inside the arteries
What does plaque contain? - Cholesterol
https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07 - Saturated fat
What is cholesterol made of?
Two types of lipoproteins (HDL and LDL)
What is HDL?
High density lipoprotein AKA "good cholesterol" that carries fats from the cells (and blood) to
the liver
What is LDL?
Low density lipoprotein AKA "bad cholesterol" that carries fats from the liver to the cells (and
blood)
Do plant products contain cholesterol?
No
What are proteins broken down into?
Amino acids
What are amino acids used for?
The synthesis of proteins in muscles, skin and hair, enzymes, and hormones
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How many amino acids are there?
20
What is an essential amino acid?
An amino acid that must be obtained from the diet
How many essential amino acids are there?
9
What is a nonessential amino acid?
An amino acid that can be produced by the body
How many nonessential amino acids are there?
11
What can low iron lead to?
Anemia
What can low calcium lead to?
Osteoporosis
What does iodine deficiency lead to?
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Goiter
What do vitamins contribute to? - Energy - Metabolism - Antioxidant defenses
What are the two water-soluble vitamins? - B-complex (coenzymes) - Vitamin C (antioxidant)
What are the four fat-soluble vitamins? - Vitamin A (components of visual pigments) - Vitamin D (absorption and use of CA) - Vitamin E (antioxidant) - Vitamin K (important in blood clotting)
What does a vitamin C deficiency lead to?
Scurvy
What does a vitamin D deficiency lead to?
Rickets
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What does the work "virus" mean?
Poison
What are some characteristics of viruses? - Extremely small - Noncellular - Specific - Not included in the classification of living organisms
What are the two primary structures of viruses? - An outer capsid composed of protein units - An inner core of either DNA or RNA
What happens during viral replication?
The virus enters the host cell OR will inject its genetic information into the host cell
What does the immune system do?
It protects the body by fighting infection and cancer
What are the lymphatic organs? - Red bone marrow - Thymus gland - Spleen - Lymph nodes
https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07 - Tonsils
What do all lymphatic organs contain?
One or more types of lymphocytes. a category of immune cells that protect the body
What does red bone marrow produce?
All different types of white blood cells
What are the types of lymphocytes produced by the red bone marrow? - B lymphocytes, also called B-cells - T lymphocytes, also called T-cells
What happens in the thymus?
Immature T-cells produced by the red bone marrow move to the thymus where they complete
their maturation
What does the thymus produce?
Hormones that are thought to help T-cells mature
What two ways does the spleen contribute to immunity? - It filters pathogens and debris with the help of macrophages - It contains lymphocytes that fight pathogens and cancer
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What is the lymph nodes filled with?
White blood cells
What do white blood cells do in the lymph nodes?
They filter the lymphatic fluid (lymph) to remove antigens and pathogens
What do the tonsils and adenoids do?
They prevent foreign particles from entering the lungs by filtering bacteria and viruses
What are pathogens?
Disease-causing agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungus
What are the two possible pathways of phage reproduction? - A lytic pathway - A lysogenic pathway
What does immunity protect the body from? - Pathogens - Foreign human cells - Abnormal cells
What are some innate (nonspecific) defenses?
https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07 - Skin - Mucus membranes - The digestive and respiratory systems - Inflammatory response
What other way can skin act as a defense against pathogens?
It has oil glands that secrete chemicals to counter pathogens
What lines the trachea and moves debris upwards? - Cilia - Mucus
What also kills many bacteria?
Stomach acid
What triggers an inflammatory response?
Any damage to the body's tissues
What are some examples of these triggers? - Infection - Burn - Puncture - Sprain
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What are some symptoms of an inflammatory response? - Reddening - Increase in temperature - Swelling - Pain
What three cell types are involved in an inflammatory response? - Mast cells - Neutrophils - Macrophages
What happens during a local inflammatory response? - The mast cells release histamine which dilates vessels and increases blood flow through the
capillaries - The capillaries become leaky - Plasma enters the tissue
What kind of cells move to the site of injury? - Neutrophils - Macrophages
What are neutrophils and macrophages?
They are phagocytic, and eat up any bacteria and dead cells (to clean the area)
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What happens during a systemic inflammatory response?
White blood cells increase in blood circulation
Macrophages release chemicals to do what?
Increase the body temperature (fever) to inhibit micro-organism growth
What is an adaptive (specific) defense?
A defense that is used when the nonspecific defenses fail to stop a pathogen or infection
What is an advantage of the specific defenses?
They can provide a "memory" of an infection
What are lymphocytes?
They are originated from stem cells (blood marrow), become either B-cells or T-cells, and
produce the immune response
What are some characteristics of B-cells? - They mature in bone marrow - They secrete antibodies - Are found in the blood - Involved in the humoral response
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What are some characteristics of T-cells? - They mature in the thymus - Attack cells infected by bacteria and viruses - Involved in the cell-mediated immune response
What is immunity?
Resistance to specific invaders
What triggers the immune response? - Something foreign - An antigen
What do mature T-cells do?
Leave the thymus gland and fight against things that have entered cells (viruses)
*They also attack transplanted organs and cancer
How do macrophages trigger an immune reaction?
What is an antibody?
A specific protein in the blood that attaches to the antigen to counter its effects
What are the three types of T-cells? - Cytotoxic (release chemicals which perforate the membrane of infected cells)
https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07 - Memory (kept in reserve) - Helper (help activate cytotoxic T-cells, and stimulate B-cells to make antibodies)
What shape is an antobody?
Y-shaped
What is an antibody's job?
To mark antigens, and to inactivate them
What happens when an antibody recognizes a specific antigen?
It forms an antigen-antibody complex, and marks an antigen for destruction by neutrophils or
macrophages
Why is the immune system able to fight against many different antigens?
The B-cell response
What does a B-cell do when it sees an antigen?
It binds with it, and a clonal selection process is triggered
What happens to the B-cell after the clonal selection process?
It grows, differentiates, and makes plasma cells that secrete antibodies that are specific to the
antigen
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What else will the plasma cell make?
Memory B-cells that allow the body to mount an immune response more quickly for the second
infection
What are the two phases of the immune response? - Primary (first time lymphocytes are exposed to the antigen and form plasma cells) - Secondary (second exposure with a faster, stronger response that lasts longer)
What is active immunity?
When the body makes antibodies for an invader
*This can be achieved by being attacked by a pathogen (infection) or immunization
(vaccination)
What is a vaccine?
An injection of dead or weakened pathogens
What is passive immunity?
When the body is given antibodies, either by a shot, or from a mother's milk
What is another term for passive immunity?
"Borrowed immunity" because it only lasts a few weeks
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What does he introduction of a vaccine promote?
An active immune response and the formation of memory B-cells
What are allergies?
A hypersensitive response to antigens called allergines
What does an immediate allergic response involve?
The release of histamine from mast cells
When does tissue rejection occur?
When cytotoxic T-cells and antibodies respond to the transplanted tissues as if they were
pathogens
How can tissue rejection be minimized? - Transplanting tissues with similar surface antigens - Administering immuno-suppressing drugs
When does an autoimmune disease occur?
When cytotoxic T-cells attack the body's won cells
What are some examples of autoimmune diseases? - Multiple sclerosis - Systemic lupus
https://www.stuvia.com/user/quizbit07 - Rheumatoid arthritis
What does AIDS stand for?
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
When does AIDS occur?
When the body loses the ability to fight infection
What is AIDS caused by?
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
What does HIV do to the body?
It gradually destroys the body's helper T-cell population, leading to susceptibility to secondary
infections and cancers
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