Abstract
In line with studying the human impacts on the earth and acquiring better ways to improve the environment, this study is a research work on tree major dams and their impact on the environment over time. The res
...
Abstract
In line with studying the human impacts on the earth and acquiring better ways to improve the environment, this study is a research work on tree major dams and their impact on the environment over time. The researcher studies each dam and comes up with convincing findings on both the positive and negative impacts through multiple research papers and works. The research also seeks to analyse whether the costs and the long term benefits are commensurate and also seeks to understand whether the removal of dams at some point, like it has happened in the development countries is a viable choice to make. The three case study dams are Three Gorges Dam, Hoover Dam and Snowy Mountains scheme of Australia.
Also, as an academic research paper, the thesis begins with the basic style from the introduction, which goes on to present and familiarize the reader with the topic and the issues to dwell on in the study. It also helps put the paper in the context and allow for a smooth flow of information. The big concerns of the study are brought forth in this section including the background scrutiny areas that the dams could be questioned upon. The concerns introduced include the benefits as predicted or expected during construction, the intention, the consequences, the committed adversities, damages to the eco system and lesson leaned particularly from other dams constructed earlier and the application of such lessons. The three dams are also described in detail from the physical angle with the aim of helping the reader to understand the dams better.
The research paper also provides a literature review aimed at providing information on the impact from the perspective of other researchers and studies. In this section, the research paper offers different views and ideas and characteristics of the dams in specific and sometimes in general to gain a proper understanding of the concepts and ideologies. The literature review is also essential in putting the research content and subject matter as one of the areas that have been analysed or discussed by many authors. The researcher has also practiced the due diligence as described in the methodology to ensure that materials and sources to use in the literature analysis are up to standard in regard to content analysis and author qualifications on the subject matter. The coverage include flood control, the geography, soil erosion, power generation, green houses gases, water accessibility, and the ecological impact of hydropower. Other topics covered include criticism from environmentalists, fish populations, river sediment flow, drought and diseases, water displacement, and dam quake among others.
The methodology part is also incorporated in the research paper to give the comprehensive details of the design and process to adopt in the research process. The methodology encompasses main the collection of data through survey and use of qualitative analysis. This triangulation has been observed to be essential in making the study better by giving it a wide range as well as deeper information. The methodology involved the selection of secondary sources and selecting the research topic. In addition, the validity, accuracy and reliability of the sources have been considered to help ensure that the sources are accurate and valid.
The research paper also has the discussions and suggestions section, which encompass the conclusion and recommendation as observed or obtained from the study. These are the accounts of the results and take aways the researcher has realised by doing the research thus far. The conclusion and recommendation point to the fact while the intention to build dams is noble and meant to bring in benefits, it is advisable to make consideration on the adverse impacts that would occur during the construction and the long term existence of the project. The stipulated guidelines include adopting proper guidelines, holistic cost and benefit analysis, increased international initiatives, broader discussion and focus on the challenges, and the eventuality of removing the dams.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Since the inception of hydroelectric energy generation technology, almost a century ago, there has been a remarkable change in the landscape with the advent of large dams. As technology grew, new dam construction methods emerged leading to further exponential increase in their numbers all over the world (Tvedt, 2010). Several engineering feat have however, exerted profound influence on the land scape, the ecosystem and the quality of life of people living around them. One such example covered in this thesis is the construction of the Hoover Dam in the Colorado River in 1931, which was the first step towards the increasing of large dams, which are classified as having more than 15 metres increased to more than 40,000 around the world (Tvedt, 2010). Some are as high as 300 metres in height.
All over the world massive construction and development of renewable sources of energy have taken place in impactful ways. The most common of them all is the hydroelectric power, which construction methods have to involve massive and large scale physical engagements within the earth and thus bound to have positive or adverse effects that extend beyond the intended purpose and the human need that ought to be satisfied. These effects might often affect the constituency and stable supply of the electric power and to meet the demand. As one of the renewable sources of energy, the sources do often have power output that cannot be easily regulated by the demand but by the forces of nature. The problem is thus handled in a way that must ensure safety and reliable operations of the electricity grid for the connection of renewable energy output (Vugteveen, 2009).
The Environmental impact of hydropower development is about how the construction and the operation of the dams affect the surroundings, the atmosphere and the ambiances of its location (Everard, 2009). Further, this includes any life that is affected be it man, animal or aquatic life and the extent to which such lives are affected in their habitats or social considerations. According to Keddy (2010) the environmental effects can be broken down into the physical, biological and social economic impacts. The physical impacts include the effects on the air and water in the form of temperature, drainage due to the construction work, flood frequency, eutrophication, ground water level, flow regime, oxygen content, and heavy metal (Everard, 2009). Others include sedimentation, transport of elements and matter, and turbidity or suspended solids. The biological impacts according to Keddy, (2010) include the fauna, which is the aquatic and terrestrial - birds, insects, mammal, the fish communities and their migration, the fisheries that encompass fish socking, the flora, mercury (especially in fish) and the red listed species aquatic and terrestrial (Keddy, 2010). On the socio-economic impacts, the hydroelectric development projects affect the access roads, fisheries, agriculture, the indigenous people, recreational areas, landscape, resettlement needs, social intrusion, schools, transportation, tourism employment, and water supply among others (Goodwin et al., 2006).
The scrutiny on the large dams raise question such as:
• Were the benefits that were predicted during the original design and commissioning of the dam achieved?
• Is the management of the reservoir system as it was planned and designed or intended?
• What consequences have occurred due to the dam constructions that were not foreseen by the designers?
• What adversities have been committed to the indigenous people in the whole dam project?
• Are there any particular damages to the ecosystem and biodiversity loss worth the benefits and the societal priorities?
• Did the design, plan and construction and operation of the dam consider lessons learned from other dams and the impacts they have had before?
For the above explained purposes, the thesis researches and studies three major dams located in different regions and they include the Three Gorges Dam in China, The Hoover Dam in the U.S.A and the Snowy Mountains Scheme in Australia. The dams are studies on their environmental impact that include flood control, generation of power, water accessibility and other ecological impacts. The thesis also focuses on the criticism that the dam projects have faced from environmentalists on matters such as fisheries, river sediment flow, water displacement, dam quake and disease and drought among others.
The dams are extremely valuable, providing benefits that include power, irrigation, reduction of floods, navigation purposes and serve as water catchment areas. The result is positive economic effect and betterment of people and aquatic life. However, despite the benefits, the large dam technology has been under constant scrutiny especially in the recent past (about 20 years) even from major organizations such as the World Bank, IUCN and the world commission on dams.
Background Information on the Dams
The following information is to help understand the physical characteristics of the dam, which is useful in placing each dam in context and a perspective that helps understand its impact on the environment, whether immediate or otherwise.
1. The Three Gorges Dam (TGD)
The Three Gorges Dam (TGD) is built in China along the Yangtze River within two cities called Sandouping in the district of Yiling in Hubei province. The three Gorges as a project began in 1993 and completed in 2009 despite being one of the most controversial in China. The three gorges make the dam the largest power generation hydro-project in the world as it has the capacity to produce up to 22,500MW. The Yangtze River is also enormous and has more than 4,000 miles of its water passing through China, and makes some of the most spectacular sceneries to watch for the TGD. According to Wu et al, (2004) Jiang M et al., (2004) the dam has a straight concrete surface about 7661 feet long and about 600 feet in height, and it used more than 500,000 tonnes of steel to build. To put that into perspective, that is as much steel that could build the Eiffel tower sixty times. The dam has 34 generators that produce enormous power, which again, as Yang, Wang and Saito (2006) explain, is as much power as burning 25 million tons of crude oil or 50 million tons of coal, which also helps understand the cleanliness element of hydroelectric power production. The TGD creates a reservoir that spans a distance of 405 square miles in total area, which has been essential in the prevention of floods, and allows sailing of huge ships from the ocean into the mainland (Ministry of Land and Resources (MLR), 2001). Among other environmental concerns discussed in this research, the major one as a result of the dam construction was the displacement or the relocation of about 1.24 million people while also endangering many plan and fish species (Yang, Wang & Saito, 2006). The dam also submerged more than 100 towns and settlements along with more than 1000 archeological and historic sites while it was being built so that it could form the water storage capacity of 39.3 billion cubic metres in volume (Wu et al., 2004).
At completion, the dam cost the Chinese government about $30 billion, which included the dam construction, the power plant; the ship lock and the compensation for the displaced persons (Lu, Huang & Wang, 2011).The cost was estimated to take no more than a decade to even costs and benefits. Millions of people live down stream along the Yangtze River and there have been worries that they endanger their lives should the wall collapse due to catastrophes such as an earthquake. There are also concerns on the changes and modifications that took place on the environment within the catchment region against a background of global changes in climate, sea level, landforms, and ecosystems. Therefore, a synthesis of the available information and case study data or scientific research helps in the analysis of the project and enables its understanding better while providing insights into the possible solutions of the various issues.
Figure 1: image of The Three Gorges Dam
2. The Hoover Dam
The Hoover Dam is located in the Colorado River at the black Canyon border of Arizona and Nevada. The dam was built in 1931, which was a tough to take up such a project due to depression, but nonetheless, the Boulder City people did it with the main aim being to prevent flooding. Other purposes include irrigating the arid regions around it and for hydroelectric power. During the time, according to Hastings (1997), it was an engineering marvel to behold as it stood 222 metres high and 379 metres across. It was a large concrete structure and has been estimated to have more concrete than the Great Pyramid at Giza (3,360,000 cubic metres) of concrete while also weighing well over 6.5 million tons (Kruse, 2014). The dam impounds a reservoir called Lake Mead that extends more than 185 kilometers up stream making it among the largest artificial lakes in the world. This is a large dam effective enough to control floods and silt and water supply additional to the hydroelectric generation and irrigation. For the 80 years that I has been in existence the Hoover dam has been a sight-seeing destination for many and receives millions of visitors every year.
The dam contains four reinforced concrete intake towers that divert water from above the dam from the reservoir into the penstocks. The penstocks are huge steel pipes (Brean, 2005). The water is then allowed to fall about 150 metres through pipes into the hydroelectric turbines attached to the plant or generator at the base of the dam. There are 17 turbines rotating in series giving a capacity of about 2,080 Megawatts. Due to the depression period, it offered employment to many people despite the fatalities that occurred at the time given that safety standards were not as good as today. The dam has a highway traversing over its crest that helps serve the visitors and the travellers crossing between Arizona and Nevada. The increase in traffic has caused some problems that raised security restrictions. This necessitated the construction of the Hoover Dam Bypass Project and the building of the concrete arch bridge in 2010, which was 322 metres and the longest in the United States for the type bridge, which helped reserve the old road to the dam visitors.
Figure 2: Image of the hoover dam
3. Snowy Mountains Scheme of Australia
Since it was completed over 40 years ago (1974), the Snowy Mountain Hydro-electric Scheme has been a marvel of engineering that has been recognized the world over. According to Discover Murray River website (n.d.) it was the most significant project that had been undertaken in any country during the postwar reconstruction program. In addition, the project, located in the New South Wales, became a definite and a pride and identity symbol for Australia, as a resourceful, multicultural and independent country (Discover Murray River website, n.d.). The Scheme diverts the south-flowing Snowy River for the a hydroelectric and irrigation purposes creating a complex consisting of sixteen dams, seven power stations and one pumping station. It contains more than 225 kilometers of tunnel layout, consisting of pipelines and aqueducts, which have stood the test of time since their construction from 1949 to 1974 (Wright, 2017).
It was and is still the largest public project undertaken in Australia. While it took 25 years to complete, there was much to build because there are 13 tunnels each measuring more than 145 kilometers, eight switching stations and control centers. The scheme has the cap city to generate about 45000 GW per year. The scheme provides more than 1/3 of all the renewable energy that feeds into the eastern mainland grid and powers the mainland grid for the major cities including Canberra, Sydney and Melbourne (Wright, 2017). In the irrigation capacity, the scheme provides more than 2300GL of water for irrigation and other uses annually to many parts of the New South Wales and victoria, which form the Great Dividing Range.
The Snowy Scheme was not only great as an engineering feat but also for the social achievement it had. In many quarters, the project is regarded as the birthplace of Australian multiculturalism, and this contributed immensely to the Australian economy and modern development. According to Discover Murray River (n.d.) it is estimated that about 100,000 people from more than 30 countries around the world came to work on the scheme. In 1959, for example, the workforce had reached its peak of 7,300 personnel at a ago. Workers came from countries including the United States, Russia, Norway, France, Greece, Cyprus, Ukraine and many others, and their contributions commemorated in the avenue of flags. Nonetheless, it is a story of perseverance through harsh conditions of climate and rugged country for the people working on the project.
The scheme is still import ant today due to its role in providing water west of the Great Dividing Range for agriculture, the management of the river through flood mitigation, augmentation of the flow during draught and salinity control in the Murray River (Discover Murray River, n.d.). It supplies the electric energy to many regions in the south Australia, acts as the frequency and voltage controller, the emergency support system, and the black start capability in case of complete system failure.
Concerns on the environment suggest that meeting the huge water capacity depends on the natural water supply availed by the snowy mountains. The current environmental conditions for the mountains and the Australian Alps had had their water delivery and quality compromised (Wright, 2017). The high-country catchment also suffers as animals are introduced into new environments, loss of wetland and leads to climate change. Over the 25 years it has existed the scheme could play a big role in restoration and management for soil conservation and affected national parks or need for restored areas for grazing. The scheme can also pose a threat to the mountain catchment on the Australian Alps and there will be degraded stream side vegetation causing erosion to the moisture holding peat soils and stream channels. The effects are more evaporation and rapid runoff and eventually lesser amount of water and lowering of the quality.
Figure 3: Image showing The Snowy Mountains Scheme Of Australia
Significance of Research
In the 21st century there is a lot of concern on the impacts of the human activities to the environment. This is because people have realized that the environment will reciprocate harshly to some of the human activities to the environment. The interference of the natural environment has indeed caused serious negative implications to the human life. Again, the implications are even likely to be having dire consequences to the future generations. This is because some of the consequences the world experiences today are as a result of human activities committed by the prior generations. The negative impacts not only affect human beings but also affect animals and other living things due to destruction of the ecosystem as result of human activities. Specifically, most of these hydropower projects have led to serious disturbance of the environments leading to serious issues such as landslides which has seen many people lose their lives. This study will provide insights as to how we can prevent any further negative impacts of these hydropower projects where possible. It is hoped that this study will also motivate environmental conservationists and scientist on the need to revisit and reevaluate most these hydropower projects to develop away through which their negative impacts can be leveraged.
This research study will also work in retrospect by assessing the process followed to conceptualize and actualize these hydropower projects. This is important since it is likely to point out where or even how the adverse effects emerged. The study will point out on where the environmental impact assessment was not conducted or else was not adhered to. This will include evaluating where the dissenting voices were not listened to. The retrospect is important as it will give a positive way forward for such projects in the future.
The increased power production in many countries was in turn expected to cause a change in the economic tune of these big economies. This research study is thus critical as it will also serve as a basis of the assessment of the positive impact of these hydropower projects to the economies as well as social bearing. For example, this study will evaluate and help realize the extent to which the Three Gorges Dam has contributed in making China the most developing economy. It also focuses on the Hoover Dam, which has been studied numerous times given its age, and so rekindles the scrutiny on the dam. The Australian authorities have in the recent years made attempt seeking to build a similar project to the Snowy Mountains schemes of Australia, and with such study there the researcher and re3ader will be able to understand while it has been difficult to do another one. In most of these hydropower projects their functions in addition to power production was also connected to the need to create irrigation schemes and boost food production. The study will also point out on the progress of these irrigation schemes and their contributions in boosting food production. The study will also submit on how effective some of these irrigation schemes have been up to date and the linking of the hydropower projects to the need for flood controls specifically the Hoover dam and the Three Gorges Dam. This study is significant as it will point out on the extent in to which these dams were effective in controlling of the flooding. The study will also re-evaluate on how the projects have been successful in line to the achievements of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specifically, one of the key pillars of the SDGs is the need to eliminate poverty. All the three projects were involved with huge amounts of investments that saw their completion and so the research paper helps bring forth the justification for such huge investments by evaluating at the overall impacts of these projects visa-vi the resources invested in the projects. In addition, the study is important as it is likely to point out on the progress of these projects so far and their maintenance to ensure that their benefits are maximized and their shortcomings are minimized
Research Objectives
1. Carry out a literature review on various credible sources to help determine the environmental impacts due to construction and the existence of the dam.
2. Show that hydro-power production and the effects is a possible topic for the study and research on the three dams because there is positive result.
3. Determine the physical effects on the rivers, the catchment area, and the electric generation operation on the range, duration and frequency.
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