I have designed and compiled
these beautiful notes to
provide a detailed but concise
summary of this module.
I have spent a lot of time
perfecting the content as
well as the presentation to
make your learning as e
...
I have designed and compiled
these beautiful notes to
provide a detailed but concise
summary of this module.
I have spent a lot of time
perfecting the content as
well as the presentation to
make your learning as easy as
possible and less daunting.3
INDEX
MODULE 2: FOUNDATIONS IN BIOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . 7
TOPIC 1: CELL STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1. Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. Light & Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3. Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. Magnification Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5. Magnification vs. Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6. Eukaryotic Cells & Cellular Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7. Organelles Involved in the Production & Secretion of Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8. Cytoskeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
9. Structure & Ultrastructure of Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
TOPIC 2: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1. Hydrogen Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2. Monomers & Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3. Biological Molecules and Their Chemical Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4 Glucose and Ribose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5. Formation and Breakage of Glycosidic Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6. Starch, Glycogen & Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7. Triglycerides and Phospholipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8. The General Structure of an Amino Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9. Dipeptides, Polypeptides and Peptide Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10. The Levels of Protein Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11. Globular and Fibrous Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
12. Inorganic Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
13. Chemical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
14. Concentration of a Chemical Substance in a Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
15. Thin Layer Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
TOPIC 3: NUCLEOTIDES & NUCLEIC ACIDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1. Nucleotides & Polynucleotides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2. ADP & ATP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
4. Semi-Conservative DNA Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5. The Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6. Transcription and Translation of Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
TOPIC 4: ENZYMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1. Enzymes & Catalysing Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2. Enzyme Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4. Coenzymes, Cofactors & Prosthetic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5. Inhibitors & Enzyme-Controlled Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
TOPIC 5: BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1. Role of Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2. The Fluid Mosaic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3. Membrane Structure and Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4. The Movement Molecules Across Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
TOPIC 6: CELL DIVISION, CELL DIVERSITY AND CELL
ORGANISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1. The Cell Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2. How the Cell Cycle is Regulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3. The Main Stages of Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4. The Significance of Mitosis in Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5. The Significance of Meiosis in Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6. Stages of Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7. Cells of Multicellular Organisms and their specialised Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8. Tissues, Organs and Organ systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9. Stem Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
10. Erythrocytes & Neutrophils Derived from Stem Cells in Bone Marrow. . . . . . . . . . . 68
11. Xylem Vessels & Phloem Sieve Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12. The Potential of Stem Cells in Research & Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
MODULE 3:EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . 71
TOPIC 1: EXCHANGE SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1. The Need for Specialised Exchange Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2. Efficient Exchange Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3. Components of the Mammalian Gaseous Exchange System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4. Ventilation in Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
5. The Relationship Between Vital Capacity, Tidal Volume,
Breathing Rate & Oxygen Uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6. Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Bony Fish and Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
TOPIC 2: TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1. Transport Systems in Multicellular Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2. Types of Circulatory Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3. Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules and Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4. The Formation of Tissue Fluid from Plasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5. The Structure of the Mammalian Heart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6. The Cardiac Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7. The Use and Interpretation of Electrocardiograms (ECG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8. The Role of Haemoglobin in Transporting Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . 88
9. The Oxygen Dissociation Curve for Fetal and Adult Human Haemoglobin . . . . . . . . 90
TOPIC 3: TRANSPORT IN PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1. The Need for Transport Systems in Multicellular Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2. The Vascular System in the Roots, Stems and Leaves
of Herbaceous Dicotyledonous Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3. Transpiration and & Transpiration Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4. The Movement of Water & Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5. Adaptations of Plants & The Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6. The Mechanism of Translocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
MODULE 4: BIODIVERSITY, EVOLUTION AND DISEASE 102
TOPIC 1: COMMUNICABLE DISEASES, DISEASE PREVENTION & THE
IMMUNE SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1. The Different Pathogens that Cause Diseases in Plants and Animals. . . . . . . . . . . 104
2. The Means of Transmission of Animal & Plant Communicable Pathogens . . . . . . . 106
3. Plant Defences Against Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4. The Primary Non-specific Defences Against Pathogens in Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5. The Structure & Mode of Action of Phagocytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6. B and T lymphocytes in The Specific Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7. The Structure & General Functions of Antibodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8. Active, Passive, Natural and Artificial immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9. Autoimmune Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10. Vaccination & The Prevention of Epidemics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11. Possible Sources of Medicines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12. The Benefits & Risks of Using Antibiotics to Manage Bacterial Infection . . . . . . . . . 1176
TOPIC 2: BIODIVERSITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1. Biodiversity at Different Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2. Sampling and Measuring the Biodiversity of a Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3. How Genetic Biodiversity is Assessed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4. The Factors Affecting Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5. Reasons to Maintain Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6. In Situ and Ex Situ Methods of Maintaining Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7. International & Local Conservation Agreements Made
to Protect Species & Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
TOPIC 3: CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1. The Biological Classification of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2. The Evidence for The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3. The Different Types of Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4. The Different Types of Adaptations of Organisms to Their Environment . . . . . . . . 136
5. Natural Selection and its Effect on the Characteristics of a Population Over Time . . . 136
6. Evolution and its Implications for Human Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138FOUNDATIONS
IN
BIOLOGY
MODULE 2TOPIC 1
Cell Structuresnaprevise.co.uk 9
Cell Structure
1 Microscopy
Scientists use a range of different types of microscopes to observe Eukaryotic cells and their
structures, which are too small to see with the naked eye:
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