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Anatomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body. Microscopic Anatomy: examines cells and molecules.  Cytology: study of cells.  Histology: study of tissues. Physiology: is the ... study of functions of anatomical structures. *Smallest living is a CELL. *Smallest organisms is a ATOM. Levels of Hierarchy Atom- the most basic complete unit of an element. Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. Organelles- are cells parts that function within a cell. Cells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual cell. Tissues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs. Organ- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two or more similar tissues. Organ System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body: circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular and nervous.  Humans have 11 Organ Systems. Cells Structure • Nucleus - holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin • Ribosomes- small structures that build proteins “amino acids”. • Golgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell. • Vacuoles - storage, digestion and waste removal. • Cytoskeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape/support cell. • Microtubules - part of the cytoskeletal. • Cytosol - liquid material in cell. • Cell membrane - separate internal and external cellular environment allows material to enter and exit cell. • Endoplasmic Reticulum- smooth or rough transport system of the cell. • Mitochondria- generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular respiration Animal Cells Centrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis. Centriole- cylinders involved in cellular division. Lysosomes- the purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or break down the cell when it dies. Cilia- cause cell to move. Flagella- whip tail to move cell. TISSUES:  Group of CELLS.  Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective. 1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin 2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, Lymph.  It protects and binds body parts. a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support  Fibrous b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and defends against disease. c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells 3. Muscle: supports and move body  Smooth  Cardiac  Skeletal 4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves.  Neurons: control responses to changes in environment. Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Interphase - Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material. Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form. Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle structure. Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes. Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched. Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell. Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two. Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction.  Gametes in female = Egg  Gametes in Male = Sperm  Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote. Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction. 1. Respiratory System  main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction. Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum. External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the entrances into the nasal cavity The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production. Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus. Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation. Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs.  Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse. Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs. Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively. Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch – an indentation for the heart’s apex. The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement. • Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface. • Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall. • Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together. Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue. Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body. • Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs. • Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs. Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing. Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal. Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal. Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse. Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH. Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing. Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections. 2. Cardiovascular System Heart • Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity. • Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system • Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex points to left hip. Heart Coverings • Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits. Heart Layers [Show More]

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