Campbell Biology, 12th Edition by Lisa Urry; Cain; Wasserman; Minorsky; Orr TEST BANK

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Test Bank for Campbell Biology, 12E by Lisa A. Urry,Michael L. Cain,Steven A. Wasserman,Peter V. Minorsky,Jane B. Reece TEST BANK ISBN-13: 9780135188743 Full chapters included 1 Evolution, the Th... emes of Biology, and Scientific Inquiry Concept 1.1 The study of life reveals unifying themes Theme: New Properties Emerge at Successive Levels of Biological Organization Emergent Properties Structure and Function The Cell: An Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and Function Theme: Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information DNA, the Genetic Material Genomics: Large-Scale Analysis of DNA Sequences Theme: Life Requires the Transfer and Transformation of Energy and Matter Theme: From Molecules to Ecosystems, Interactions Are Important in Biological Systems Molecules: Interactions Within Organisms Ecosystems: An Organism’s Interactions with Other Organisms and the Physical Environment Concept 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life Classifying the Diversity of Life The Three Domains of Life Unity in the Diversity of Life Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection The Tree of Life Concept 1.3 In studying nature, scientists form and test hypotheses Exploration and Observation Gathering and Analyzing Data Forming and Testing Hypotheses Deductive Reasoning Questions That Can and Cannot Be Addressed by Science The Flexibility of the Scientific Process A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Coat Coloration in Mouse Populations Variables and Controls in Experiments Theories in Science Concept 1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints Building on the Work of Others Science, Technology, and Society The Value of Diverse Viewpoints in Science 1 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 1.1 The study of life reveals unifying themes (pp. 3–11) Organization Theme: New Properties Emerge at Successive Levels of Biological Organization Information Theme: Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information Energy and Matter Theme: Life Requires the Transfer and Transformation of Energy and Matter Interactions Theme: From Molecules to Ecosystems, Interactions Are Important in Biological Systems Concept 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life (pp. 11–16) Concept 1.3 In studying nature, scientists form and test hypotheses (pp. 16–22) Concept 1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints (pp. 22–24) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating Unit 1 The Chemistry of Life 2 The Chemical Context of Life Concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds Elements and Compounds The Elements of Life Case Study: Evolution of Tolerance to Toxic Elements Concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms Subatomic Particles Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Isotopes Radioactive Tracers Radiometric Dating The Energy Levels of Electrons Electron Distribution and Chemical Properties Electron Orbitals Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules and ionic compounds depend on chemical bonding between atoms Covalent Bonds Ionic Bonds Weak Chemical Interactions Hydrogen Bonds Van der Waals Interactions Molecular Shape and Function Concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds 2 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds (pp. 29–30) Concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms (pp. 30–36) Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules and ionic compounds depend on chemical bonding between atoms (pp. 36–40) Concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds (pp. 40–41) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 3 Water and Life Concept 3.1 Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in hydrogen bonding Concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s suitability for life Cohesion of Water Molecules Moderation of Temperature by Water Temperature and Heat Water’s High Specific Heat Evaporative Cooling Floating of Ice on Liquid Water Water: The Solvent of Life Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Substances Solute Concentration in Aqueous Solutions Possible Evolution of Life on Other Planets Concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms Acids and Bases The pH Scale Buffers Acidification: A Threat to Our Oceans 3 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 3.1 Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in hydrogen bonding (p. 45) Concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s suitability for life (pp. 45–50) Concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms (pp. 51–54) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 4 Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is key to the origin of life Concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms The Formation of Bonds with Carbon Molecular Diversity Arising from Variation in Carbon Skeletons Hydrocarbons Isomers Concept 4.3 A few chemical groups are key to molecular function The Chemical Groups Most Important in the Processes of Life ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes The Chemical Elements of Life: A Review 4 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is key to the origin of life (pp. 57–58) Concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms (pp. 58–62) Concept 4.3 A few chemical groups are key to molecular function (pp. 62–64) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 5 The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers The Diversity of Polymers Concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material Sugars Polysaccharides Storage Polysaccharides Structural Polysaccharides Concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules Fats Phospholipids Steroids Concept 5.4 Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions Amino Acids (Monomers) Polypeptides (Amino Acid Polymers) Protein Structure and Function Four Levels of Protein Structure Sickle-Cell Disease: A Change in Primary Structure What Determines Protein Structure? Protein Folding in the Cell Concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information The Roles of Nucleic Acids The Components of Nucleic Acids Nucleotide Polymers The Structures of DNA and RNA Molecules Concept 5.6 Genomics and proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of Evolution 5 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers (pp. 67–68) Concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material (pp. 68–72) Concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules (pp. 72–75) Concept 5.4 Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions (pp. 75–83) Concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information (pp. 84–86) Concept 5.6 Genomics and proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications (pp. 86–89) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating Unit 2 The Cell 6 A Tour of the Cell Concept 6.1 Biologists use microscopes and biochemistry to study cells Microscopy Cell Fractionation Concept 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell Concept 6.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes The Nucleus: Information Central Ribosomes: Protein Factories Concept 6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory Functions of Smooth ER Functions of Rough ER The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments The Endomembrane System: A Review Concept 6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy Peroxisomes: Oxidation Concept 6.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility Components of the Cytoskeleton Microtubules Centrosomes and Centrioles Cilia and Flagella Microfilaments (Actin Filaments) Intermediate Filaments Concept 6.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities Cell Walls of Plants The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells Cell Junctions Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions in Animal Cells Concept 6.8 A cell is greater than the sum of its parts 6 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 6.1 Biologists use microscopes and biochemistry to study cells (pp. 94–97) Concept 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions (pp. 97–102) Concept 6.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes (pp. 102–104) Concept 6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions (pp. 104–109) Concept 6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another (pp. 109–112) Concept 6.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell (pp. 112–117) Concept 6.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities (pp. 118–121) Concept 6.8 A cell is greater than the sum of its parts (pp. 121–123) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 7 Membrane Structure and Function Concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins The Fluidity of Membranes Evolution of Differences in Membrane Lipid Composition Membrane Proteins and Their Functions The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-Cell Recognition Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes Concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer Transport Proteins Concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment Effects of Osmosis on Water Balance Water Balance of Cells Without Cell Walls Water Balance of Cells with Cell Walls Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Aided by Proteins Concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients The Need for Energy in Active Transport How Ion Pumps Maintain Membrane Potential Cotransport: Coupled Transport by a Membrane Protein Concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis Exocytosis Endocytosis 7 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins (pp. 127–131) Concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability (pp. 131–132) Concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment (pp. 132–136) Concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients (pp. 136–139) Concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis (pp. 139–141) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 8 An Introduction to Metabolism Concept 8.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy Metabolic Pathways Forms of Energy The Laws of Energy Transformation The First Law of Thermodynamics The Second Law of Thermodynamics Biological Order and Disorder Concept 8.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontaneously Free-Energy Change, ΔG Free Energy, Stability, and Equilibrium Free Energy and Metabolism Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions in Metabolism Equilibrium and Metabolism Concept 8.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP How ATP Provides Energy That Performs Work The Regeneration of ATP Concept 8.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers The Activation Energy Barrier How Enzymes Speed Up Reactions Substrate Specificity of Enzymes Catalysis in the Enzyme’s Active Site Effects of Local Conditions on Enzyme Activity Effects of Temperature and pH Cofactors Enzyme Inhibitors The Evolution of Enzymes Concept 8.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism Allosteric Regulation of Enzymes Allosteric Activation and Inhibition Feedback Inhibition Localization of Enzymes Within the Cell 8 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 8.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy (pp. 144–147) Concept 8.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontaneously (pp. 147–150) Concept 8.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions (pp. 150–153) Concept 8.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers (pp. 153–159) Concept 8.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism (pp. 159–161) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 9 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation Concept 9.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction The Principle of Redox Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During Cellular Respiration Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the Electron Transport Chain The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview Concept 9.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate Concept 9.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA The Citric Acid Cycle Concept 9.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis The Pathway of Electron Transport Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration Concept 9.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen Types of Fermentation Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis Concept 9.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways The Versatility of Catabolism Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways) Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms 9 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 9.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels (pp. 165–169) Concept 9.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate (pp. 170–171) Concept 9.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules (pp. 171–174) Concept 9.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis (pp. 174–178) Concept 9.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen (pp. 179–182) Concept 9.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways (pp. 182–184) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 10 Photosynthesis Concept 10.1 Photosynthesis feeds the biosphere Concept 10.2 Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food Chloroplasts: The Sites of Photosynthesis in Plants Tracking Atoms Through Photosynthesis The Splitting of Water: Scientific Inquiry Photosynthesis as a Redox Process The Two Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview Concept 10.3 The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH The Nature of Sunlight Photosynthetic Pigments: The Light Receptors Excitation of Chlorophyll by Light A Photosystem: A Reaction-Center Complex Associated with Light-Harvesting Complexes Linear Electron Flow Cyclic Electron Flow A Comparison of Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Concept 10.4 The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar Concept 10.5 Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates Photorespiration: An Evolutionary Relic? C4 Plants CAM Plants Concept 10.6 Photosynthesis is essential for life on Earth: a review 10 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 10.1 Photosynthesis feeds the biosphere (pp. 188) Concept 10.2 Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food (pp. 189–192) Concept 10.3 The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH (pp. 192–201) Concept 10.4 The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar (pp. 201–202) Concept 10.5 Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates (pp. 203–206) Concept 10.6 Photosynthesis is essential for life on Earth: a review (pp. 206–209) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 11 Cell Communication Concept 11.1 External signals are converted to responses within the cell Evolution of Cell Signaling Local and Long-Distance Signaling The Three Stages of Cell Signaling: A Preview Concept 11.2 Signal reception: A signaling molecule binds to a receptor, causing it to change shape Receptors in the Plasma Membrane Intracellular Receptors Concept 11.3 Signal transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions transmit signals from receptors to relay molecules in the cell Signal Transduction Pathways Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers Cyclic AMP Calcium Ions and Inositol Trisphosphate (IP3) Concept 11.4 Cellular response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities Nuclear and Cytoplasmic Responses Regulation of the Response Signal Amplification The Specificity of Cell Signaling and Coordination of the Response Signaling Efficiency: Scaffolding Proteins and Signaling Complexes Termination of the Signal Concept 11.5 Apoptosis requires integration of multiple cell-signaling pathways Apoptosis in the Soil Worm Caenorhabditis elegans Apoptotic Pathways and the Signals That Trigger Them 11 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 11.1 External signals are converted to responses within the cell (pp. 213–217) Concept 11.2 Signal reception: A signaling molecule binds to a receptor, causing it to change shape (pp. 217–221) Concept 11.3 Signal transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions transmit signals from receptors to relay molecules in the cell (pp. 221–225) Concept 11.4 Cellular response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities (pp. 226–229) Concept 11.5 Apoptosis requires integration of multiple cell-signaling pathways (pp. 229–231) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 12 The Cell Cycle Concept 12.1 Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells Key Roles of Cell Division Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division Concept 12.2 The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle Phases of the Cell Cycle The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look Cytokinesis: A Closer Look Binary Fission in Bacteria The Evolution of Mitosis Concept 12.3 The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system The Cell Cycle Control System The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells 12 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 12.1 Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells (pp. 235–237) Concept 12.2 The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle (pp. 237–244) Concept 12.3 The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system (pp. 244–250) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating Unit 3 Genetics 13 Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes Inheritance of Genes Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Concept 13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles Concept 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid The Stages of Meiosis Crossing Over and Synapsis During Prophase I A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis Concept 13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring Independent Assortment of Chromosomes Crossing Over Random Fertilization The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation Within Populations 13 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes (pp. 255–256) Concept 13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles (pp. 256–259) Concept 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid (pp. 259–265) Concept 13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution (pp. 265–267) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 14 Mendel and the Gene Idea Concept 14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance Mendel’s Experimental, Quantitative Approach The Law of Segregation Mendel’s Model Useful Genetic Vocabulary The Testcross The Law of Independent Assortment Concept 14.2 Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance The Multiplication and Addition Rules Applied to Monohybrid Crosses Solving Complex Genetics Problems with the Rules of Probability Concept 14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics Extending Mendelian Genetics for a Single Gene Degrees of Dominance The Relationship Between Dominance and Phenotype Frequency of Dominant Alleles Multiple Alleles Pleiotropy Extending Mendelian Genetics for Two or More Genes Epistasis Polygenic Inheritance Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on Phenotype A Mendelian View of Heredity and Variation Concept 14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance Pedigree Analysis Recessively Inherited Disorders The Behavior of Recessive Alleles Cystic Fibrosis Sickle-Cell Disease: A Genetic Disorder with Evolutionary Implications Dominantly Inherited Disorders Multifactorial Disorders Genetic Testing and Counseling Counseling Based on Mendelian Genetics and Probability Rules Tests for Identifying Carriers Fetal Testing Newborn Screening 14 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance (pp. 270–276) Concept 14.2 Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance (pp. 276–278) Concept 14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics (pp. 278–283) Concept 14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance (pp. 284–290) Test Your Understanding Tips For Genetics Problems Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 15 The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Concept 15.1 Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes Morgan’s Choice of Experimental Organism Correlating Behavior of a Gene’s Alleles with Behavior of a Chromosome Pair: Scientific Inquiry Concept 15.2 Sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance The Chromosomal Basis of Sex Inheritance of X-Linked Genes X Inactivation in Female Mammals Concept 15.3 Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located near each other on the same chromosome How Linkage Affects Inheritance Genetic Recombination and Linkage Recombination of Unlinked Genes: Independent Assortment of Chromosomes Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over New Combinations of Alleles: Variation for Natural Selection Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry Concept 15.4 Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders Abnormal Chromosome Number Alterations of Chromosome Structure Human Conditions Due to Chromosomal Alterations Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered Chromosomes Concept 15.5 Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance Genomic Imprinting Inheritance of Organelle Genes 15 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 15.1 Morgan showed that Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes (pp. 295–297) Concept 15.2 Sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance (pp. 298–300) Concept 15.3 Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located near each other on the same chromosome (pp. 301–306) Concept 15.4 Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders (pp. 306–309) Concept 15.5 Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance (pp. 310–311) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 16 The Molecular Basis of Inheritance Concept 16.1 DNA is the genetic material The Search for the Genetic Material: Scientific Inquiry Evidence That DNA Can Transform Bacteria Evidence That Viral DNA Can Program Cells Additional Evidence That DNA Is the Genetic Material Building a Structural Model of DNA Concept 16.2 Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair The Basic Principle: Base Pairing to a Template Strand DNA Replication: A Closer Look Getting Started Synthesizing a New DNA Strand Antiparallel Elongation The DNA Replication Complex Proofreading and Repairing DNA Evolutionary Significance of Altered DNA Nucleotides Replicating the Ends of DNA Molecules Concept 16.3 A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins 16 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 16.1 DNA is the genetic material (pp. 315–320) Concept 16.2 Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair (pp. 320–329) Concept 16.3 A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins (pp. 330–332) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 17 Gene Expression: From Gene to Protein Concept 17.1 Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation Evidence from Studying Metabolic Defects Nutritional Mutants in Neurospora: Scientific Inquiry The Products of Gene Expression: A Developing Story Basic Principles of Transcription and Translation The Genetic Code Codons: Triplets of Nucleotides Cracking the Code Evolution of the Genetic Code Concept 17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA: A Closer Look Molecular Components of Transcription Synthesis of an RNA Transcript RNA Polymerase Binding and Initiation of Transcription Elongation of the RNA Strand Termination of Transcription Concept 17.3 Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription Alteration of mRNA Ends Split Genes and RNA Splicing Ribozymes The Functional and Evolutionary Importance of Introns Concept 17.4 Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide: A Closer Look Molecular Components of Translation The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA The Structure and Function of Ribosomes Building a Polypeptide Ribosome Association and Initiation of Translation Elongation of the Polypeptide Chain Termination of Translation Completing and Targeting the Functional Protein Protein Folding and Post-translational Modifications Targeting Polypeptides to Specific Locations Making Multiple Polypeptides in Bacteria and Eukaryotes Concept 17.5 Mutations of one or a few nucleotides can affect protein structure and function Types of Small-Scale Mutations Substitutions Insertions and Deletions New Mutations and Mutagens Using CRISPR to Edit Genes and Correct Disease-Causing Mutations What Is a Gene? Revisiting the Question 17 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 17.1 Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation (pp. 336–342) Concept 17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA: A Closer Look (pp. 342–344) Concept 17.3 Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription (pp. 345–347) Concept 17.4 Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide: A Closer Look (pp. 347–356) Concept 17.5 Mutations of one or a few nucleotides can affect protein structure and function (pp. 357–362) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 18 Regulation of Gene Expression Concept 18.1 Bacteria often respond to environmental change by regulating transcription Operons: The Basic Concept Repressible and Inducible Operons: Two Types of Negative Gene Regulation Positive Gene Regulation Concept 18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at many stages Differential Gene Expression Regulation of Chromatin Structure Histone Modifications and DNA Methylation Epigenetic Inheritance Regulation of Transcription Initiation Organization of a Typical Eukaryotic Gene and Its Transcript The Roles of General and Specific Transcription Factors General Transcription Factors at the Promoter Enhancers and Specific Transcription Factors Combinatorial Control of Gene Activation Coordinately Controlled Genes in Eukaryotes Nuclear Architecture and Gene Expression Mechanisms of Post-transcriptional Regulation RNA Processing Initiation of Translation and mRNA Degradation Protein Processing and Degradation Concept 18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression Effects on mRNAs by MicroRNAs and Small Interfering RNAs Chromatin Remodeling and Effects on Transcription by ncRNAs Concept 18.4 A program of differential gene expression leads to the different cell types in a multicellular organism A Genetic Program for Embryonic Development Cytoplasmic Determinants and Inductive Signals Sequential Regulation of Gene Expression During Cellular Differentiation Pattern Formation: Setting Up the Body Plan The Life Cycle of Drosophila Genetic Analysis of Early Development: Scientific Inquiry Axis Establishment Bicoid: A Morphogen That Determines Head Structures Evolutionary Developmental Biology (“Evo-Devo”) Concept 18.5 Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control Types of Genes Associated with Cancer Interference with Normal Cell-Signaling Pathways The Multistep Model of Cancer Development Inherited Predisposition and Environmental Factors Contributing to Cancer The Role of Viruses in Cancer 18 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 18.1 Bacteria often respond to environmental change by regulating transcription (pp. 366–370) Concept 18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at many stages (pp. 370–379) Concept 18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression (pp. 379–381) Concept 18.4 A program of differential gene expression leads to the different cell types in a multicellular organism (pp. 381–388) Concept 18.5 Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control (pp. 388–395) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 19 Viruses Concept 19.1 A virus consists of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat The Discovery of Viruses: Scientific Inquiry Structure of Viruses Viral Genomes Capsids and Envelopes Concept 19.2 Viruses replicate only in host cells General Features of Viral Replicative Cycles Replicative Cycles of Phages The Lytic Cycle The Lysogenic Cycle Bacterial Defenses Against Phages Replicative Cycles of Animal Viruses Viral Envelopes Viral Genetic Material Evolution of Viruses Concept 19.3 Viruses and prions are formidable pathogens in animals and plants Viral Diseases in Animals Emerging Viral Diseases Viral Diseases in Plants Prions: Proteins as Infectious Agents 19 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 19.1 A virus consists of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat (pp. 399–401) Concept 19.2 Viruses replicate only in host cells (pp. 401–408) Concept 19.3 Viruses and prions are formidable pathogens in animals and plants (pp. 408–413) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 20 DNA Tools and Biotechnology Concept 20.1 DNA sequencing and DNA cloning are valuable tools for genetic engineering and biological inquiry DNA Sequencing Making Multiple Copies of a Gene or Other DNA Segment Using Restriction Enzymes to Make a Recombinant DNA Plasmid Amplifying DNA: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Its Use in DNA Cloning Expressing Cloned Eukaryotic Genes Bacterial Expression Systems Eukaryotic DNA Cloning and Expression Systems Cross-Species Gene Expression and Evolutionary Ancestry Concept 20.2 Biologists use DNA technology to study gene expression and function Analyzing Gene Expression Studying the Expression of Single Genes Studying the Expression of Interacting Groups of Genes Determining Gene Function Editing Genes and Genomes Other Methods for Studying Gene Function Concept 20.3 Cloned organisms and stem cells are useful for basic research and other applications Cloning Plants: Single-Cell Cultures Cloning Animals: Nuclear Transplantation Reproductive Cloning of Mammals Epigenetic Differences in Cloned Animals Stem Cells of Animals Embryonic and Adult Stem Cells Induced Pluripotent Stem (iPS) Cells Concept 20.4 The practical applications of DNA-based biotechnology affect our lives in many ways Medical Applications Diagnosis and Treatment of Diseases Personal Genome Analysis Personalized Medicine Human Gene Therapy and Gene Editing Pharmaceutical Products Synthesis of Small Molecules for Use as Drugs Protein Production in Cell Cultures Protein Production by “Pharm” Animals Forensic Evidence and Genetic Profiles Environmental Cleanup Agricultural Applications Safety and Ethical Questions Raised by DNA Technology 20 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 20.1 DNA sequencing and DNA cloning are valuable tools for genetic engineering and biological inquiry (pp. 416–423) Concept 20.2 Biologists use DNA technology to study gene expression and function (pp. 423–428) Concept 20.3 Cloned organisms and stem cells are useful for basic research and other applications (pp. 428–432) Concept 20.4 The practical applications of DNA-based biotechnology affect our lives in many ways (pp. 433–439) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 21 Genomes and Their Evolution Concept 21.1 The Human Genome Project fostered development of faster, less expensive sequencing techniques Concept 21.2 Scientists use bioinformatics to analyze genomes and their functions Centralized Resources for Analyzing Genome Sequences Identifying Protein-Coding Genes and Understanding Their Functions Understanding Genes and Gene Expression at the Systems Level Systems Biology Application of Systems Biology to Medicine Concept 21.3 Genomes vary in size, number of genes, and gene density Genome Size Number of Genes Gene Density and Noncoding DNA Concept 21.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have a lot of noncoding DNA and many multigene families Transposable Elements and Related Sequences Movement of Transposons and Retrotransposons Sequences Related to Transposable Elements Other Repetitive DNA, Including Simple Sequence DNA Genes and Multigene Families Concept 21.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and mutation of DNA contribute to genome evolution Duplication of Entire Chromosome Sets Alterations of Chromosome Structure Duplication and Divergence of Gene-Sized Regions of DNA Evolution of Genes with Related Functions: The Human Globin Genes Evolution of Genes with Novel Functions Rearrangements of Parts of Genes: Exon Duplication and Exon Shuffling How Transposable Elements Contribute to Genome Evolution Concept 21.6 Comparing genome sequences provides clues to evolution and development Comparing Genomes Comparing Distantly Related Species Comparing Closely Related Species Comparing Genomes Within a Species Widespread Conservation of Developmental Genes Among Animals 21 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 21.1 The Human Genome Project fostered development of faster, less expensive sequencing techniques (pp. 443–444) Concept 21.2 Scientists use bioinformatics to analyze genomes and their functions (pp. 444–448) Concept 21.3 Genomes vary in size, number of genes, and gene density (pp. 448–450) Concept 21.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have a lot of noncoding DNA and many multigene families (pp. 450–453) Concept 21.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and mutation of DNA contribute to genome evolution (pp. 454–459) Concept 21.6 Comparing genome sequences provides clues to evolution and development (pp. 459–464) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating Unit 4 Mechanisms of Evolution 22 Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life Concept 22.1 The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species Endless Forms Most Beautiful Scala Naturae and Classification of Species Ideas About Change over Time Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution Concept 22.2 Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life Darwin’s Research The Voyage of the Beagle Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation Ideas from The Origin of Species Descent with Modification Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and Adaptation Key Features of Natural Selection Concept 22.3 Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change Natural Selection in Response to Introduced Species The Evolution of Drug-Resistant Bacteria Homology Anatomical and Molecular Homologies Homologies and “Tree Thinking” A Different Cause of Resemblance: Convergent Evolution The Fossil Record Biogeography What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life? 22 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 22.1 The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species (pp. 469–471) Concept 22.2 Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life (pp. 471–476) Concept 22.3 Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence (pp. 476–484) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 23 The Evolution of Populations Concept 23.1 Genetic variation makes evolution possible Genetic Variation Sources of Genetic Variation Formation of New Alleles Altering Gene Number or Position Rapid Reproduction Sexual Reproduction Concept 23.2 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test whether a population is evolving Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies The Hardy-Weinberg Equation Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Applying the Hardy-Weinberg Equation Concept 23.3 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population Natural Selection Genetic Drift The Founder Effect The Bottleneck Effect Case Study: Impact of Genetic Drift on the Greater Prairie Chicken Effects of Genetic Drift: A Summary Gene Flow Concept 23.4 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution Natural Selection: A Closer Look Relative Fitness Directional, Disruptive, and Stabilizing Selection The Key Role of Natural Selection in Adaptive Evolution Sexual Selection Balancing Selection Frequency-Dependent Selection Heterozygote Advantage Why Natural Selection Cannot Fashion Perfect Organisms 23 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 23.1 Genetic variation makes evolution possible (pp. 487–489) Concept 23.2 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test whether a population is evolving (pp. 489–493) Concept 23.3 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population (pp. 493–497) Concept 23.4 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution (pp. 497–504) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 24 The Origin of Species Concept 24.1 The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation The Biological Species Concept Reproductive Isolation Limitations of the Biological Species Concept Other Definitions of Species Concept 24.2 Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation Allopatric (“Other Country”) Speciation The Process of Allopatric Speciation Evidence of Allopatric Speciation Sympatric (“Same Country”) Speciation Polyploidy Sexual Selection Habitat Differentiation Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation: A Review Concept 24.3 Hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation Patterns Within Hybrid Zones Hybrid Zones and Environmental Change Hybrid Zones over Time Reinforcement: Strengthening Reproductive Barriers Fusion: Weakening Reproductive Barriers Stability: Continued Formation of Hybrid Individuals Concept 24.4 Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can result from changes in few or many genes The Time Course of Speciation Patterns in the Fossil Record Speciation Rates Studying the Genetics of Speciation From Speciation to Macroevolution 24 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 24.1 The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation (pp. 507–510) Concept 24.2 Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation (pp. 511–516) Concept 24.3 Hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation (pp. 516–520) Concept 24.4 Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can result from changes in few or many genes (pp. 520–523) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 25 The History of Life on Earth Concept 25.1 Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules Protocells Self-Replicating RNA Concept 25.2 The fossil record documents the history of life The Fossil Record How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated The Origin of New Groups of Organisms Concept 25.3 Key events in life’s history include the origins of unicellular and multicellular organisms and the colonization of land The First Single-Celled Organisms Photosynthesis and the Oxygen Revolution The First Eukaryotes The Origin of Multicellularity Early Multicellular Eukaryotes The Cambrian Explosion The Colonization of Land Concept 25.4 The rise and fall of groups of organisms reflect differences in speciation and extinction rates Plate Tectonics Consequences of Continental Drift Mass Extinctions The “Big Five” Mass Extinction Events Is a Sixth Mass Extinction Under Way? Consequences of Mass Extinctions Adaptive Radiations Worldwide Adaptive Radiations Regional Adaptive Radiations Concept 25.5 Major changes in body form can result from changes in the sequences and regulation of developmental genes Effects of Developmental Genes Changes in Rate and Timing Changes in Spatial Pattern The Evolution of Development Changes in Gene Sequence Changes in Gene Regulation Concept 25.6 Evolution is not goal oriented Evolutionary Novelties Evolutionary Trends 25 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 25.1 Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible (pp. 526–528) Concept 25.2 The fossil record documents the history of life (pp. 528–532) Concept 25.3 Key events in life’s history include the origins of unicellular and multicellular organisms and the colonization of land (pp. 532–537) Concept 25.4 The rise and fall of groups of organisms reflect differences in speciation and extinction rates (pp. 537–544) Concept 25.5 Major changes in body form can result from changes in the sequences and regulation of developmental genes (pp. 544–547) Concept 25.6 Evolution is not goal oriented (pp. 547–549) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating Unit 5 The Evolutionary History of Biological Diversity 26 Phylogeny and the Tree of Life Concept 26.1 Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships Binomial Nomenclature Hierarchical Classification Linking Classification and Phylogeny What We Can and Cannot Learn from Phylogenetic Trees Applying Phylogenies Concept 26.2 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data Morphological and Molecular Homologies Sorting Homology from Analogy Evaluating Molecular Homologies Concept 26.3 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees Cladistics Shared Ancestral and Shared Derived Characters Inferring Phylogenies Using Derived Characters Phylogenetic Trees with Proportional Branch Lengths Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood Phylogenetic Trees as Hypotheses Concept 26.4 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome Gene Duplications and Gene Families Genome Evolution Concept 26.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time Molecular Clocks Differences in Clock Speed Potential Problems with Molecular Clocks Applying a Molecular Clock: Dating the Origin of HIV Concept 26.6 Our understanding of the tree of life continues to change based on new data From Two Kingdoms to Three Domains The Important Role of Horizontal Gene Transfer 26 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 26.1 Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships (pp. 554–558) Concept 26.2 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data (pp. 558–559) Concept 26.3 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees (pp. 559–565) Concept 26.4 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome (pp. 565–566) Concept 26.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time (pp. 566–568) Concept 26.6 Our understanding of the tree of life continues to change based on new data (pp. 568–570) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 27 Bacteria and Archaea Concept 27.1 Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success Cell-Surface Structures Motility Evolutionary Origins of Bacterial Flagella Internal Organization and DNA Reproduction Concept 27.2 Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination promote genetic diversity in prokaryotes Rapid Reproduction and Mutation Genetic Recombination Transformation and Transduction Conjugation and Plasmids The F Factor as a Plasmid The F Factor in the Chromosome R Plasmids and Antibiotic Resistance Concept 27.3 Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism Nitrogen Metabolism Metabolic Cooperation Concept 27.4 Prokaryotes have radiated into a diverse set of lineages An Overview of Prokaryotic Diversity Bacteria Archaea Concept 27.5 Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere Chemical Recycling Ecological Interactions Concept 27.6 Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful impacts on humans Mutualistic Bacteria Pathogenic Bacteria Antibiotic Resistance Prokaryotes in Research and Technology 27 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 27.1 Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success (pp. 574–578) Concept 27.2 Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination promote genetic diversity in prokaryotes (pp. 578–581) Concept 27.3 Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes (pp. 581–583) Concept 27.4 Prokaryotes have radiated into a diverse set of lineages (pp. 583–586) Concept 27.5 Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere (pp. 586–587) Concept 27.6 Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful impacts on humans (pp. 587–591) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 28 Protists Concept 28.1 Most eukaryotes are single-celled organisms Structural and Functional Diversity in Protists Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution Plastid Evolution: A Closer Look Four Supergroups of Eukaryotes Concept 28.2 Excavates include protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagella Diplomonads and Parabasalids Euglenozoans Kinetoplastids Euglenids Concept 28.3 SAR is a highly diverse group of protists defined by DNA similarities Stramenopiles Diatoms Brown Algae Alternation of Generations Oomycetes (Water Molds and Their Relatives) Alveolates Dinoflagellates Apicomplexans Ciliates Rhizarians Radiolarians Forams Cercozoans Concept 28.4 Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of plants Red Algae Green Algae Concept 28.5 Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animals Amoebozoans Tubulinids Slime Molds Plasmodial Slime Molds Cellular Slime Molds Entamoebas Opisthokonts Concept 28.6 Protists play key roles in ecological communities Symbiotic Protists Photosynthetic Protists 28 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 28.1 Most eukaryotes are single-celled organisms (pp. 594–597) Concept 28.2 Excavates include protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagella (pp. 597–601) Concept 28.3 SAR is a highly diverse group of protists defined by DNA similarities (pp. 601–609) Concept 28.4 Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of plants (pp. 609–611) Concept 28.5 Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animals (pp. 611–614) Concept 28.6 Protists play key roles in ecological communities (pp. 614–615) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 29 Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land Concept 29.1 Plants evolved from green algae Evidence of Algal Ancestry Adaptations Enabling the Move to Land Derived Traits of Plants The Origin and Diversification of Plants Concept 29.2 Mosses and other nonvascular plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytes Bryophyte Gametophytes Bryophyte Sporophytes The Ecological and Economic Importance of Mosses Concept 29.3 Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tall Origins and Traits of Vascular Plants Life Cycles with Dominant Sporophytes Transport in Xylem and Phloem Evolution of Roots Evolution of Leaves Sporophylls and Spore Variations Classification of Seedless Vascular Plants Phylum Lycophyta: Club Mosses, Spikemosses, and Quillworts Phylum Monilophyta: Ferns, Horsetails, and Whisk Ferns and Relatives The Significance of Seedless Vascular Plants 29 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 29.1 Plants evolved from green algae (pp. 619–623) Concept 29.2 Mosses and other nonvascular plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytes (pp. 623–629) Concept 29.3 Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tall (pp. 629–634) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 30 Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants Concept 30.1 Seeds and pollen grains are key adaptations for life on land Advantages of Reduced Gametophytes Heterospory: The Rule Among Seed Plants Ovules and Production of Eggs Pollen and Production of Sperm The Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds Concept 30.2 Gymnosperms bear “naked” seeds, typically on cones The Life Cycle of a Pine Early Seed Plants and the Rise of Gymnosperms Gymnosperm Diversity Concept 30.3 The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits Characteristics of Angiosperms Flowers Fruits The Angiosperm Life Cycle Angiosperm Evolution Fossil Angiosperms Angiosperm Phylogeny Evolutionary Links with Animals Angiosperm Diversity Concept 30.4 Human welfare depends on seed plants Products from Seed Plants Threats to Plant Diversity 30 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 30.1 Seeds and pollen grains are key adaptations for life on land (pp. 637–639) Concept 30.2 Gymnosperms bear “naked” seeds, typically on cones (pp. 640–644) Concept 30.3 The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits (pp. 644–651) Concept 30.4 Human welfare depends on seed plants (pp. 651–652) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 31 Fungi Concept 31.1 Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption Nutrition and Ecology Body Structure Specialized Hyphae in Mycorrhizal Fungi Concept 31.2 Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction Concept 31.3 The ancestor of fungi was an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist The Origin of Fungi The Move to Land Concept 31.4 Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineages Cryptomycetes and Microsporidians Cryptomycetes Microsporidians Chytrids Zoopagomycetes Mucoromycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Concept 31.5 Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfare Fungi as Decomposers Fungi as Mutualists Fungus-Plant Mutualisms Fungus-Animal Mutualisms Lichens Fungi as Parasites Practical Uses of Fungi 31 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 31.1 Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption (pp. 655–657) Concept 31.2 Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles (pp. 657–659) Concept 31.3 The ancestor of fungi was an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist (pp. 659–660) Concept 31.4 Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineages (pp. 660–667) Concept 31.5 Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfare (pp. 667–671) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 32 An Overview of Animal Diversity Concept 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers Nutritional Mode Cell Structure and Specialization Reproduction and Development Concept 32.2 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years Steps in the Origin of Multicellular Animals Neoproterozoic Era (1 Billion–541 Million Years Ago) Paleozoic Era (541–252 Million Years Ago) Mesozoic Era (252–66 Million Years Ago) Cenozoic Era (66 Million Years Ago to the Present) Concept 32.3 Animals can be characterized by body plans Symmetry Tissues Body Cavities Protostome and Deuterostome Development Cleavage Coelom Formation Fate of the Blastopore Concept 32.4 Views of animal phylogeny continue to be shaped by new molecular and morphological data The Diversification of Animals Future Directions in Animal Systematics 32 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers (pp. 674–675) Concept 32.2 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years (pp. 675–679) Concept 32.3 Animals can be characterized by body plans (pp. 679–682) Concept 32.4 Views of animal phylogeny continue to be shaped by new molecular and morphological data (pp. 682–684) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 33 An Introduction to Invertebrates Concept 33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack tissues Concept 33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans Medusozoans Anthozoans Concept 33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of animal body forms Flatworms Free-Living Species Parasitic Species Trematodes Tapeworms Rotifers and Acanthocephalans Rotifers Acanthocephalans Ectoprocts and Brachiopods Molluscs Chitons Gastropods Bivalves Cephalopods Protecting Freshwater and Terrestrial Molluscs Annelids Errantians Sedentarians Leeches Earthworms Concept 33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group Nematodes Arthropods Arthropod Origins General Characteristics of Arthropods Chelicerates Myriapods Pancrustaceans Crustaceans Insects Concept 33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes Echinoderms Asteroidea: Sea Stars and Sea Daisies Ophiuroidea: Brittle Stars Echinoidea: Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars Crinoidea: Sea Lilies and Feather Stars Holothuroidea: Sea Cucumbers Chordates 33 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack tissues (pp. 690–691) Concept 33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans (pp. 691–693) Concept 33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of animal body forms (pp. 694–705) Concept 33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group (pp. 705–713) Concept 33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes (pp. 713–715) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 34 The Origin and Evolution of Vertebrates Concept 34.1 Chordates have a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord Derived Characters of Chordates Notochord Dorsal, Hollow Nerve Cord Pharyngeal Slits or Clefts Muscular, Post-Anal Tail Lancelets Tunicates Early Chordate Evolution Concept 34.2 Vertebrates are chordates that have a backbone Derived Characters of Vertebrates Hagfishes and Lampreys Hagfishes Lampreys Early Vertebrate Evolution Concept 34.3 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws Derived Characters of Gnathostomes Fossil Gnathostomes Chondrichthyans (Sharks, Rays, and Their Relatives) Ray-Finned Fishes and Lobe-Fins Ray-Finned Fishes Lobe-Fins Concept 34.4 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs Derived Characters of Tetrapods The Origin of Tetrapods Amphibians Salamanders Frogs Caecilians Lifestyle and Ecology of Amphibians Concept 34.5 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg Derived Characters of Amniotes Early Amniotes Reptiles The Origin and Evolutionary Radiation of Reptiles Turtles Lepidosaurs Crocodilians Birds Derived Characters of Birds The Origin of Birds Living Birds Concept 34.6 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk Derived Characters of Mammals Early Evolution of Mammals Monotremes Marsupials Eutherians (Placental Mammals) Primates Derived Characters of Primates Living Primates Concept 34.7 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion Derived Characters of Humans The Earliest Hominins Australopiths Bipedalism Tool Use Early Homo Neanderthals Homo sapiens 34 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 34.1 Chordates have a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord (pp. 719–722) Concept 34.2 Vertebrates are chordates that have a backbone (pp. 722–725) Concept 34.3 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws (pp. 725–730) Concept 34.4 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs (pp. 730–734) Concept 34.5 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg (pp. 734–741) Concept 34.6 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk (pp. 741–747) Concept 34.7 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion (pp. 748–754) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating Unit 6 Plant Form And Function 35 Vascular Plant Structure, Growth, and Development Concept 35.1 Plants have a hierarchical organization consisting of organs, tissues, and cells Vascular Plant Organs: Roots, Stems, and Leaves Roots Stems Leaves Dermal, Vascular, and Ground Tissues Common Types of Plant Cells Concept 35.2 Different meristems generate new cells for primary and secondary growth Concept 35.3 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots Primary Growth of Roots Primary Growth of Shoots Stem Growth and Anatomy Leaf Growth and Anatomy Concept 35.4 Secondary growth increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants The Vascular Cambium and Secondary Vascular Tissue The Cork Cambium and the Production of Periderm Evolution of Secondary Growth Concept 35.5 Growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation produce the plant body Model Organisms: Revolutionizing the Study of Plants Growth: Cell Division and Cell Expansion Cell Division Cell Expansion Morphogenesis and Pattern Formation Gene Expression and the Control of Cell Differentiation Shifts in Development: Phase Changes Genetic Control of Flowering 35 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 35.1 Plants have a hierarchical organization consisting of organs, tissues, and cells (pp. 759–765) Concept 35.2 Different meristems generate new cells for primary and secondary growth (pp. 766–767) Concept 35.3 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots (pp. 768–771) Concept 35.4 Secondary growth increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants (pp. 772–775) Concept 35.5 Growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation produce the plant body (pp. 775–780) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 36 Resource Acquisition and Transport in Vascular Plants Concept 36.1 Adaptations for acquiring resources were key steps in the evolution of vascular plants Shoot Architecture and Light Capture The Photosynthesis–Water Loss Compromise Root Architecture and Acquisition of Water and Minerals Concept 36.2 Different mechanisms transport substances over short or long distances The Apoplast and Symplast: Transport Continuums Short-Distance Transport of Solutes Across Plasma Membranes Short-Distance Transport of Water Across Plasma Membranes How Solutes and Pressure Affect Water Potential Water Movement Across Plant Cell Membranes Aquaporins: Facilitating Diffusion of Water Long-Distance Transport: The Role of Bulk Flow Concept 36.3 Transpiration drives the transport of water and minerals from roots to shoots via the xylem Absorption of Water and Minerals by Root Cells Transport of Water and Minerals into the Xylem Bulk Flow Transport via the Xylem Pushing Xylem Sap: Root Pressure Pulling Xylem Sap: The Cohesion-Tension Hypothesis Transpirational Pull Cohesion and Adhesion in the Ascent of Xylem Sap Xylem Sap Ascent by Bulk Flow: A Review Concept 36.4 The rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata Stomata: Major Pathways for Water Loss Mechanisms of Stomatal Opening and Closing Stimuli for Stomatal Opening and Closing Effects of Transpiration on Wilting and Leaf Temperature Adaptations That Reduce Evaporative Water Loss Concept 36.5 Sugars are transported from sources to sinks via the phloem Movement from Sugar Sources to Sugar Sinks Bulk Flow by Positive Pressure: The Mechanism of Translocation in Angiosperms Concept 36.6 The symplast is highly dynamic Changes in Plasmodesmatal Number and Pore Size Phloem: An Information Superhighway Electrical Signaling in the Phloem 36 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 36.1 Adaptations for acquiring resources were key steps in the evolution of vascular plants (pp. 785–787) Concept 36.2 Different mechanisms transport substances over short or long distances (pp. 787–792) Concept 36.3 Transpiration drives the transport of water and minerals from roots to shoots via the xylem (pp. 792–796) Concept 36.4 The rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata (pp. 796–799) Concept 36.5 Sugars are transported from sources to sinks via the phloem (pp. 799–801) Concept 36.6 The symplast is highly dynamic (pp. 801–802) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 37 Soil and Plant Nutrition Concept 37.1 Soil contains a living, complex ecosystem Soil Texture Topsoil Composition Inorganic Components Organic Components Soil Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture Irrigation Fertilization Adjusting Soil pH Controlling Erosion Phytoremediation Concept 37.2 Plant roots absorb many types of essential elements from the soil Essential Elements Symptoms of Mineral Deficiency Global Climate Change and Food Quality Concept 37.3 Plant nutrition often involves relationships with other organisms Bacteria and Plant Nutrition Rhizobacteria Bacteria in the Nitrogen Cycle Bacteria and Nitrogen Fixation Nitrogen Fixation and Agriculture Fungi and Plant Nutrition Mycorrhizae and Plant Evolution Types of Mycorrhizae Agricultural and Ecological Importance of Mycorrhizae Epiphytes, Parasitic Plants, and Carnivorous Plants 37 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 37.1 Soil contains a living, complex ecosystem (pp. 806–809) Concept 37.2 Plant roots absorb many types of essential elements from the soil (pp. 809–812) Concept 37.3 Plant nutrition often involves relationships with other organisms (pp. 812–820) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 38 Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology Concept 38.1 Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are key features of the angiosperm life cycle Flower Structure and Function Methods of Pollination The Angiosperm Life Cycle: An Overview Development of Female Gametophytes (Embryo Sacs) Development of Male Gametophytes in Pollen Grains Sperm Delivery by Pollen Tubes Double Fertilization Seed Development Seed Development and Structure Endosperm Development Embryo Development Structure of the Mature Seed Seed Dormancy: An Adaptation for Tough Times Sporophyte Development from Seed to Mature Plant Seed Germination Growth and Flowering Fruit Structure and Function Concept 38.2 Flowering plants reproduce sexually, asexually, or both Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Mechanisms That Prevent Self-Fertilization Totipotency, Vegetative Reproduction, and Tissue Culture Vegetative Propagation and Grafting Test-Tube Cloning and Related Techniques Concept 38.3 People modify crops by breeding and genetic engineering Plant Breeding Plant Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Reducing World Hunger and Malnutrition Reducing Fossil Fuel Dependency The Debate over Plant Biotechnology Issues of Human Health Possible Effects on Nontarget Organisms Addressing the Problem of Transgene Escape 38 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 38.1 Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are key features of the angiosperm life cycle (pp. 823–832) Concept 38.2 Flowering plants reproduce sexually, asexually, or both (pp. 833–836) Concept 38.3 People modify crops by breeding and genetic engineering (pp. 836–840) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 39 Plant Responses to Internal and External Signals Concept 39.1 Signal transduction pathways link signal reception to response Reception Transduction Response Post-translational Modification of Preexisting Proteins Transcriptional Regulation De-etiolation (“Greening”) Proteins Concept 39.2 Plants use chemicals to communicate General Characteristics of Plant Hormones A Survey of Plant Hormones Auxin The Role of Auxin in Cell Elongation Auxin’s Role in Plant Development Practical Uses for Auxins Cytokinins Control of Cell Division and Differentiation Control of Apical Dominance Anti-aging Effects Gibberellins Stem Elongation Fruit Growth Germination Abscisic Acid Seed Dormancy Drought Tolerance Ethylene The Triple Response to Mechanical Stress Senescence Leaf Abscission Fruit Ripening More Recently Discovered Plant Hormones Concept 39.3 Responses to light are critical for plant success Blue-Light Photoreceptors Phytochrome Photoreceptors Phytochromes and Seed Germination Phytochromes and Shade Avoidance Biological Clocks and Circadian Rhythms The Effect of Light on the Biological Clock Photoperiodism and Responses to Seasons Photoperiodism and Control of Flowering Critical Night Length A Flowering Hormone? Concept 39.4 Plants respond to a wide variety of stimuli other than light Gravity Mechanical Stimuli Environmental Stresses Drought Flooding Salt Stress Heat Stress Cold Stress Concept 39.5 Plants respond to attacks by pathogens and herbivores Defenses Against Pathogens PAMP-Triggered Immunity Effector-Triggered Immunity The Hypersensitive Response Systemic Acquired Resistance Defenses Against Herbivores 39 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 39.1 Signal transduction pathways link signal reception to response (pp. 843–845) Concept 39.2 Plants use chemicals to communicate (pp. 845–855) Concept 39.3 Responses to light are critical for plant success (pp. 855–861) Concept 39.4 Plants respond to a wide variety of stimuli other than light (pp. 861–865) Concept 39.5 Plants respond to attacks by pathogens and herbivores (pp. 866–869) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating Unit 7 Animal Form and Function 40 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function Concept 40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization Evolution of Animal Size and Shape Exchange with the Environment Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans Coordination and Control Concept 40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals Regulating and Conforming Homeostasis Mechanisms of Homeostasis Feedback Control in Homeostasis Alterations in Homeostasis Concept 40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior Endothermy and Ectothermy Variation in Body Temperature Balancing Heat Loss and Gain Insulation Circulatory Adaptations Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss Behavioral Responses Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production Acclimatization in Thermoregulation Physiological Thermostats and Fever Concept 40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment Energy Allocation and Use Quantifying Energy Use Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation Influences on Metabolic Rate Size and Metabolic Rate Activity and Metabolic Rate Torpor and Energy Conservation 40 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization (pp. 874–881) Concept 40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals (pp. 881–883) Concept 40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior (pp. 884–889) Concept 40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment (pp. 889–895) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 41 Animal Nutrition Concept 41.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients Essential Nutrients Essential Amino Acids Essential Fatty Acids Vitamins Minerals Variation in Diet Dietary Deficiencies Deficiencies in Essential Nutrients Undernourishment Assessing Nutritional Needs Concept 41.2 Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination Digestive Compartments Intracellular Digestion Extracellular Digestion Concept 41.3 Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus Digestion in the Stomach Chemical Digestion in the Stomach Stomach Dynamics Digestion in the Small Intestine Absorption in the Small Intestine Processing in the Large Intestine Concept 41.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet Dental Adaptations Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations Mutualistic Adaptations Mutualistic Adaptations in Herbivores Concept 41.5 Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite Regulation of Digestion Regulation of Energy Storage Glucose Homeostasis Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Diabetes Type 2 Diabetes Regulation of Appetite and Consumption 41 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 41.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients (pp. 899–902) Concept 41.2 Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination (pp. 902–905) Concept 41.3 Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system (pp. 905–911) Concept 41.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet (pp. 911–914) Concept 41.5 Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite (pp. 914–918) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 42 Circulation and Gas Exchange Concept 42.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body Gastrovascular Cavities Open and Closed Circulatory Systems Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems Single Circulation Double Circulation Evolutionary Variation in Double Circulation Concept 42.2 Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals Mammalian Circulation The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat Concept 42.3 Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels Blood Vessel Structure and Function Blood Flow Velocity Blood Pressure Changes in Blood Pressure During the Cardiac Cycle Regulation of Blood Pressure Blood Pressure and Gravity Capillary Function Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System Concept 42.4 Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defense Blood Composition and Function Plasma Cellular Elements Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets Stem Cells and the Replacement of Cellular Elements Blood Clotting Cardiovascular Disease Atherosclerosis, Heart Attacks, and Stroke Risk Factors and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease Concept 42.5 Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces Partial Pressure Gradients in Gas Exchange Respiratory Media Respiratory Surfaces Gills in Aquatic Animals Tracheal Systems in Insects Lungs Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look Concept 42.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs How an Amphibian Breathes How a Bird Breathes How a Mammal Breathes Control of Breathing in Humans Concept 42.7 Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases Coordination of Circulation and Gas Exchange Respiratory Pigments Carbon Dioxide Transport Respiratory Adaptations of Diving Mammals 42 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 42.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body (pp. 922–926) Concept 42.2 Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals (pp. 926–929) Concept 42.3 Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels (pp. 929–934) Concept 42.4 Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defense (pp. 934–939) Concept 42.5 Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces (pp. 939–944) Concept 42.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs (pp. 944–946) Concept 42.7 Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases (pp. 947–949) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 43 The Immune System Concept 43.1 In innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens Innate Immunity of Invertebrates Innate Immunity of Vertebrates Barrier Defenses Cellular Innate Defenses Local Inflammatory Response Systemic and Chronic Inflammation Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins Evasion of Innate Immunity by Pathogens Concept 43.2 In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition Antigens as the Trigger for Adaptive Immunity Antigen Recognition by B Cells and Antibodies Antigen Recognition by T Cells B Cell and T Cell Development The Basis of B Cell and T Cell Diversity Antigen Receptor Gene Rearrangement Origin of Self-Tolerance Proliferation of B Cells and T Cells Immunological Memory Concept 43.3 Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells Helper T Cells: Activating Adaptive Immunity B Cells and Antibodies: A Response to Extracellular Pathogens Activation of B Cells Antibody Function Cytotoxic T Cells: A Response to Infected Host Cells Summary of the Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses Immunization Active and Passive Immunity Antibodies as Tools Immune Rejection Blood Groups Concept 43.4 Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease Exaggerated, Self-Directed, and Diminished Immune Responses Allergies Autoimmune Diseases Exertion, Stress, and the Immune System Immunodeficiency Diseases Evolutionary Adaptations of Pathogens That Underlie Immune System Avoidance Antigenic Variation Latency Attack on the Immune System: HIV Cancer and Immunity 43 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 43.1 In innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens (pp. 953–957) Concept 43.2 In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition (pp. 957–963) Concept 43.3 Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells (pp. 963–970) Concept 43.4 Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease (pp. 970–974) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 44 Osmoregulation and Excretion Concept 44.1 Osmoregulation balances the uptake and loss of water and solutes Osmosis and Osmolarity Osmoregulatory Challenges and Mechanisms Marine Animals Freshwater Animals Animals That Live in Temporary Waters Land Animals Energetics of Osmoregulation Transport Epithelia in Osmoregulation Concept 44.2 An animal’s nitrogenous wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat Forms of Nitrogenous Waste Ammonia Urea Uric Acid The Influence of Evolution and Environment on Nitrogenous Wastes Concept 44.3 Diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme Survey of Excretory Systems Protonephridia Metanephridia Malpighian Tubules Kidneys Concept 44.4 The nephron is organized for stepwise processing of blood filtrate From Blood Filtrate to Urine: A Closer Look Solute Gradients and Water Conservation Concentrating Urine in the Mammalian Kidney Adaptations of the Vertebrate Kidney to Diverse Environments Mammals Case Study: Kidney Function in the Vampire Bat Birds and Other Reptiles Freshwater Fishes and Amphibians Marine Bony Fishes Concept 44.5 Hormonal circuits link kidney function, water balance, and blood pressure Homeostatic Regulation of the Kidney Antidiuretic Hormone The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Coordinated Regulation of Salt and Water Balance 44 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 44.1 Osmoregulation balances the uptake and loss of water and solutes (pp. 978–982) Concept 44.2 An animal’s nitrogenous wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat (pp. 982–983) Concept 44.3 Diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme (pp. 983–987) Concept 44.4 The nephron is organized for stepwise processing of blood filtrate (pp. 987–993) Concept 44.5 Hormonal circuits link kidney function, water balance, and blood pressure (pp. 994–996) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 45 Hormones and the Endocrine System Concept 45.1 Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways Intercellular Information Flow Endocrine Signaling Paracrine and Autocrine Signaling Synaptic and Neuroendocrine Signaling Signaling by Pheromones Chemical Classes of Hormones Cellular Hormone Response Pathways Response Pathway for Water-Soluble Hormones Response Pathway for Lipid-Soluble Hormones Multiple Responses to a Single Hormone Endocrine Tissues and Organs Concept 45.2 Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in hormone pathways Simple Endocrine Pathways Simple Neuroendocrine Pathways Feedback Regulation Coordination of the Endocrine and Nervous Systems Invertebrates Vertebrates Posterior Pituitary Hormones Anterior Pituitary Hormones Thyroid Regulation: A Hormone Cascade Pathway Disorders of Thyroid Function and Regulation Hormonal Regulation of Growth Concept 45.3 Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development, and behavior Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D: Control of Blood Calcium Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress The Role of the Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine’s Multiple Effects: A Closer Look The Role of the Adrenal Cortex Sex Hormones Endocrine Disruptors Hormones and Biological Rhythms Evolution of Hormone Function 45 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 45.1 Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways (pp. 1000–1004) Concept 45.2 Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in hormone pathways (pp. 1004–1011) Concept 45.3 Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development, and behavior (pp. 1011–1016) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 46 Animal Reproduction Concept 46.1 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction Reproductive Cycles Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma Concept 46.2 Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species Ensuring the Survival of Offspring Gamete Production and Delivery Concept 46.3 Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes Human Male Reproductive Anatomy Testes Ducts Accessory Glands Penis Human Female Reproductive Anatomy Ovaries Oviducts and Uterus Vagina and Vulva Mammary Glands Gametogenesis Concept 46.4 The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates reproduction in mammals Biological Sex, Gender Identity, and Sexual Orientation in Human Sexuality Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles The Ovarian Cycle The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle Menopause Menstrual Versus Estrous Cycles Human Sexual Response Concept 46.5 In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully within the mother’s uterus Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth First Trimester Second and Third Trimesters Maternal Immune Tolerance of the Embryo and Fetus Contraception and Abortion Modern Reproductive Technologies Infertility and in Vitro Fertilization Detecting Disorders During Pregnancy 46 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 46.1 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom (pp. 1020–1022) Concept 46.2 Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species (pp. 1022–1025) Concept 46.3 Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes (pp. 1025–1029) Concept 46.4 The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates reproduction in mammals (pp. 1030–1034) Concept 46.5 In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully within the mother’s uterus (pp. 1034–1040) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 47 Animal Development Concept 47.1 Fertilization and cleavage initiate embryonic development Fertilization The Acrosomal Reaction The Cortical Reaction Egg Activation Fertilization in Mammals Cleavage Cleavage Pattern in Frogs Cleavage Patterns in Other Animals Concept 47.2 Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival Gastrulation Gastrulation in Frogs Gastrulation in Chicks Gastrulation in Humans Developmental Adaptations of Amniotes Organogenesis Neurulation Cell Migration in Organogenesis Organogenesis in Chicks and Insects The Cytoskeleton in Morphogenesis Cell Shape Changes in Morphogenesis Cell Migration in Morphogenesis Programmed Cell Death Concept 47.3 Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals regulate cell fate Fate Mapping Axis Formation Axis Formation in the Frog Axis Formation in Birds, Mammals, and Insects Restricting Developmental Potential Cell Fate Determination and Pattern Formation by Inductive Signals The “Organizer” of Spemann and Mangold Formation of the Vertebrate Limb Cilia and Cell Fate 47 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 47.1 Fertilization and cleavage initiate embryonic development (pp. 1044–1049) Concept 47.2 Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival (pp. 1049–1057) Concept 47.3 Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals regulate cell fate (pp. 1057–1064) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 48 Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling Concept 48.1 Neuron structure and organization reflect function in information transfer Neuron Structure and Function Introduction to Information Processing Concept 48.2 Ion pumps and ion channels establish the resting potential of a neuron Formation of the Resting Potential Modeling the Resting Potential Concept 48.3 Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons Hyperpolarization and Depolarization Graded Potentials and Action Potentials Generation of Action Potentials: A Closer Look Conduction of Action Potentials Evolutionary Adaptations of Axon Structure Concept 48.4 Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses Generation of Postsynaptic Potentials Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials Termination of Neurotransmitter Signaling Modulated Signaling at Synapses Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Amino Acids Biogenic Amines Neuropeptides Gases 48 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 48.1 Neuron structure and organization reflect function in information transfer (pp. 1068–1069) Concept 48.2 Ion pumps and ion channels establish the resting potential of a neuron (pp. 1069–1072) Concept 48.3 Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons (pp. 1072–1077) Concept 48.4 Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses (pp. 1077–1083) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 49 Nervous Systems Concept 49.1 Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System Glia Concept 49.2 The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized Arousal and Sleep Biological Clock Regulation Emotions Functional Imaging of the Brain Concept 49.3 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions Information Processing Language and Speech Lateralization of Cortical Function Frontal Lobe Function Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates Concept 49.4 Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning Neuronal Plasticity Memory and Learning Long-Term Potentiation Concept 49.5 Many nervous system disorders can now be explained in molecular terms Schizophrenia Depression The Brain’s Reward System and Drug Addiction Alzheimer’s Disease Parkinson’s Disease Future Directions in Brain Research 49 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 49.1 Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells (pp. 1086–1090) Concept 49.2 The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized (pp. 1091–1096) Concept 49.3 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions (pp. 1096–1099) Concept 49.4 Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning (pp. 1099–1101) Concept 49.5 Many nervous system disorders can now be explained in molecular terms (pp. 1102–1104) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 50 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms Concept 50.1 Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system Sensory Reception and Transduction Transmission Perception Amplification and Adaptation Types of Sensory Receptors Mechanoreceptors Chemoreceptors Electromagnetic Receptors Thermoreceptors Pain Receptors Concept 50.2 In hearing and equilibrium, mechanoreceptors detect moving fluid or settling particles Sensing of Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals Hearing Equilibrium Hearing and Equilibrium in Other Vertebrates Concept 50.3 The diverse visual receptors of animals depend on light-absorbing pigments Evolution of Visual Perception Light-Detecting Organs Compound Eyes Single-Lens Eyes The Vertebrate Visual System Sensory Transduction in the Eye Processing of Visual Information in the Retina Processing of Visual Information in the Brain Color Vision The Visual Field Concept 50.4 The senses of taste and smell rely on similar sets of sensory receptors Taste in Mammals Smell in Humans Concept 50.5 The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle function Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle The Sliding-Filament Model of Muscle Contraction The Role of Calcium and Regulatory Proteins Nervous Control of Muscle Tension Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Oxidative and Glycolytic Fibers Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Fibers Other Types of Muscle Concept 50.6 Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion Types of Skeletal Systems Hydrostatic Skeletons Exoskeletons Endoskeletons Types of Locomotion Locomotion on Land Swimming Flying 50 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 50.1 Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system (pp. 1108–1112) Concept 50.2 In hearing and equilibrium, mechanoreceptors detect moving fluid or settling particles (pp. 1112–1116) Concept 50.3 The diverse visual receptors of animals depend on light-absorbing pigments (pp. 1117–1123) Concept 50.4 The senses of taste and smell rely on similar sets of sensory receptors (pp. 1123–1125) Concept 50.5 The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle function (pp. 1125–1132) Concept 50.6 Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion (pp. 1132–1136) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 51 Animal Behavior Concept 51.1 Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors Fixed Action Patterns Migration Behavioral Rhythms Animal Signals and Communication Forms of Animal Communication Pheromones Concept 51.2 Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior Experience and Behavior Learning Imprinting Spatial Learning and Cognitive Maps Associative Learning Cognition and Problem Solving Development of Learned Behaviors Social Learning Concept 51.3 Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behaviors Evolution of Foraging Behavior Optimal Foraging Model Balancing Risk and Reward Mating Behavior and Mate Choice Mating Systems and Sexual Dimorphism Mating Systems and Parental Care Sexual Selection and Mate Choice Mate Choice by Females Male Competition for Mates Applying Game Theory Concept 51.4 Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the evolution of behavior Genetic Basis of Behavior Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Behavior Case Study: Variation in Prey Selection Case Study: Variation in Migratory Patterns Altruism Inclusive Fitness Hamilton’s Rule and Kin Selection Reciprocal Altruism Evolution and Human Culture 51 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 51.1 Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors (pp. 1140–1143) Concept 51.2 Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior (pp. 1143–1148) Concept 51.3 Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behaviors (pp. 1148–1154) Concept 51.4 Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the evolution of behavior (pp. 1154–1160) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating Unit 8 Ecology 52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere Concept 52.1 Earth’s climate varies by latitude and season and is changing rapidly Global Climate Patterns Regional and Local Effects on Climate Seasonality Bodies of Water Mountains Effects of Vegetation on Climate Microclimate Global Climate Change Concept 52.2 The distribution of terrestrial biomes is controlled by climate and disturbance Climate and Terrestrial Biomes General Features of Terrestrial Biomes Disturbance and Terrestrial Biomes Concept 52.3 Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth Zonation in Aquatic Biomes Concept 52.4 Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species Dispersal and Distribution Natural Range Expansions and Adaptive Radiation Species Transplants Biotic Factors Abiotic Factors Temperature Water and Oxygen Salinity Sunlight Rocks and Soil Concept 52.5 Ecological change and evolution affect one another over long and short periods of time 52 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 52.1 Earth’s climate varies by latitude and season and is changing rapidly (pp. 1167–1170) Concept 52.2 The distribution of terrestrial biomes is controlled by climate and disturbance (pp. 1171–1176) Concept 52.3 Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth (pp. 1177–1178) Concept 52.4 Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species (pp. 1178–1187) Concept 52.5 Ecological change and evolution affect one another over long and short periods of time (p. 1187) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 53 Population Ecology Concept 53.1 Biotic and abiotic factors affect population density, dispersion, and demographics Density and Dispersion Density: A Dynamic Perspective Patterns of Dispersion Demographics Life Tables Survivorship Curves Reproductive Rates Concept 53.2 The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment Changes in Population Size Exponential Growth Concept 53.3 The logistic model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity The Logistic Growth Model The Logistic Model and Real Populations Concept 53.4 Life history traits are products of natural selection Diversity of Life Histories “Trade-offs” and Life Histories Concept 53.5 Density-dependent factors regulate population growth Population Change and Population Density Mechanisms of Density-Dependent Population Regulation Population Dynamics Stability and Fluctuation Population Cycles: Scientific Inquiry Immigration, Emigration, and Metapopulations Concept 53.6 The human population is no longer growing exponentially but is still increasing extremely rapidly The Global Human Population Regional Patterns of Population Change Age Structure Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy Global Carrying Capacity Estimates of Carrying Capacity Limits on Human Population Size 53 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 53.1 Biotic and abiotic factors affect population density, dispersion, and demographics (pp. 1191–1195) Concept 53.2 The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment (pp. 1196–1197) Concept 53.3 The logistic model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity (pp. 1197–1200) Concept 53.4 Life history traits are products of natural selection (pp. 1200–1202) Concept 53.5 Density-dependent factors regulate population growth (pp. 1202–1207) Concept 53.6 The human population is no longer growing exponentially but is still increasing extremely rapidly (pp. 1207–1211) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 54 Community Ecology Concept 54.1 Interactions between species can help, harm, or have no effect on the individuals involved Competition Competitive Exclusion Ecological Niches and Natural Selection Character Displacement Exploitation Predation Herbivory Parasitism Positive Interactions Mutualism Commensalism Concept 54.2 Diversity and trophic structure characterize biological communities Species Diversity Diversity and Community Stability Trophic Structure Food Webs Limits on Food Chain Length Species with a Large Impact Bottom-Up and Top-Down Controls Concept 54.3 Disturbance influences species diversity and composition Characterizing Disturbance Ecological Succession Human Disturbance Concept 54.4 Biogeographic factors affect community diversity Latitudinal Gradients Area Effects Island Equilibrium Model Concept 54.5 Pathogens alter community structure locally and globally Effects on Community Structure Community Ecology and Zoonotic Diseases 54 Chapter Review Summary of Key Concepts Concept 54.1 Interactions between species can help, harm, or have no effect on the individuals involved (pp. 1215–1221) Concept 54.2 Diversity and trophic structure characterize biological communities (pp. 1222–1228) Concept 54.3 Disturbance influences species diversity and composition (pp. 1228–1231) Concept 54.4 Biogeographic factors affect community diversity (pp. 1231–1233) Concept 54.5 Pathogens alter community structure locally and globally (pp. 1234–1235) Test Your Understanding Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding Levels 3-4: Applying/Analyzing Levels 5-6: Evaluating/Creating 55 Ecosystems and Restoration Ecology Concept 55.1 Physical laws govern energy flow and chemical cycling in ecosystems Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling Conservation of Energy Conservation of Mass Energy, Mass, and Trophic Levels Concept 55.2 Energy and other limiting factors control primary production in ecosystems Ecosystem Energy Budgets The Global Energy Budget Gross and Net Production Primary Production in Aquatic Ecosystems Light Limitation Nutrient Limitation Primary Production in Terrestrial Ecosystems Nutrient Limitations and Adaptations That Reduce Them Effects of Climate Change on Production Concept 55.3 Energy transfer between trophic levels is typically only 10% efficient Production Efficiency Trophic Efficiency and Ecological Pyramids Concept 55.4 Biological and geochemical processes cycle nutrients and water in ecosystems Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling Rates Biogeochemical Cycles Case Study: Nutrient Cycling in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest Concept 55.5 Restoration ecologists return degraded ecosystems to a more natural state Bioremediation Biological Augmentation Ecosystems: A Review 55 Cha [Show More]

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