NU 208 Pathophysiology Final Exam Study Guide. A+ Rated

NU 208 Pathophysiology Final Exam Study Guide. A+ Rated.● What is included in the cytoplasmic content and what is the function of each?: ○ Cytoplasms are found in Eukaryotic cells ○ Cytoplasms consist of cytoplasmic ma ...

NU 208 Pathophysiology Final Exam Study Guide. A+ Rated.● What is included in the cytoplasmic content and what is the function of each?: ○ Cytoplasms are found in Eukaryotic cells ○ Cytoplasms consist of cytoplasmic matrix, cytosol, and cytoplasmic organelles ○ Cytoplasmic matrix - the space between nucleus and plasma membrane ○ Cytosol - an aqueous solution that fills the cytoplasmic matrix ○ Cytoplasmic organelles - ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, caveolae, and vaults ■ Chapter 1, Table 1-1 lists all of these organelles and their functions ● Aerobic glycolysis: *** ○ Requires oxygen ○ Gives more energy ● Anaerobic glycolysis: *** ○ Also known as substrate phosphorylation ○ Does not require oxygen ○ Breakdown/glycolysis of carbohydrates to pyruvate ○ Occurs in the cytoplasm ○ Not as effective as aerobic ● Klinefelter Syndrome: *** ○ Also known as XXY Syndrome ○ Males are born with an extra X chromosome ○ Has both male and female sex organs ○ Characteristics: ■ Male appearance, developed female-like breasts, small testes, sparse body hair, and long limbs ● Down’s Syndrome: *** ○ Also known as Trisomy 21 ○ Chromosome abnormality is on the 22nd pair ○ Risk increases due to older maternal age (above 35), having a children with down syndrome before, and a parent that is a carrier ○ S/S: ■ Mental retardation, low nasal bridge, epicanthal folds, protruding tongue, poor muscle tone, and heart deficits ● Dysplasia: *** ○ Deranged cellular growth ■ Out of control and growing where it shouldn’t be ● Hyperplasia: *** ○ An increase in the reproduction rate of cells causing the enlargement of an organ or tissue ● Metaplasia: *** ○ Conversion/replacement of one cell type to another cell type ● Atrophy: *** ○ A decrease or shrinkage in cellular size (degeneration of cells) ○ Caused by nerve loss ○ Oxygen use and amino acid uptake are reduced ● Hypertrophy: ○ An increase or growth in cellular size ● Metabolic acidosis: Acidosis is a pH below 7.35 *** ○ Increased production/ingestion of H+ or loss of HCO3- ○ PCO2 decreases ○ Blood pH decreases (becoming too acidic) ○ HCO3 decreases ○ Elevated hydrogen ion ● Metabolic alkalosis: Alkalosis is a pH above 7.45 *** ○ Increased production/ingestion of HCO3- or loss of H+ ○ PCO2 increases ○ Blood pH increases (becoming too alkaline) ○ HCO3 increases ● Respiratory acidosis: ○ CO2 retention ■ Decreased ventilations, breathing too slow ○ PCO2 increases ○ Blood pH decreases (becoming too acidic) ○ HCO3 increases ○ Elevated hydrogen ion ○ Hypercapnia - increased CO2 level in the arterial blood ○ Hypoventilation - often seen in those with airway obstructions and altered neurologic function ● Respiratory alkalosis: ○ CO2 washout ■ Exceeding metabolic demand, breathing too fast ○ PCO2 decreases ○ Blood pH increases (becoming too alkaline) ○ HCO3 decreases ○ Hypocapnia - decreased CO2 level in the arterial blood ○ Hyperventilation - often seen in those with severe anxiety/panic attacks, acute head injuries, pain, pregnancy, and in response to conditions that cause hypoxemia ● What is the function of ADH? What stimulates the production/release of ADH?:*** ○ Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin ○ Released from the posterior pituitary gland in response to dehydration or decreased blood volume ○ Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, which increases blood volume ○ Potent vasoconstrictor ● Hyponatremia: *** ○ Definition: ■ Low sodium (NA+) levels in the blood ○ S/S: ■ Confusion, fatigue, nausea and vomiting, abdominal/muscle cramping, increased urination, salty food cravings, and seizures ● Natural killer cell function: *** ○ Large granular lymphocytes in the innate immune system with natural cytotoxicity against tumor cells and microbial infections ● Neutrophils: *** ○ The most abundant granulocyte (type of WBC) in the immune system ○ Clears the wound of debris during wound healing and bacteria, but are later replaced by macrophages ● Monocytes: *** ○ The largest leukocyte (type of WBC) in the immune system ■ Can differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells ● Active immunity: *** ○ A form of acquired immunity in which antibodies develop in the immune system after the body is exposed to an antigen through a disease or immunization ■ Lasts for a long time; produces their own antibodies