Social Science for Postgraduate Study Week 3: Positivism Introduction. Best Presentation

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2 •  Last week we explored the broad philosophical concepts that are fundamental to social science research: ontology, epistemology, theory. •  This week, we start our focus on a range of ... epistemologies relevant to social science research: Positivism •  If you remember, a key element of positivism is objective knowledge.Learning Outcomes 3 •  Understand the key principles of positivism; •  Understand the origins of positivism; •  Understand positivism in practice; •  To engage in an evaluation of positivism.What is Positivism? •  Positivism is an epistemological perspective. •  It believes in the scientific study of the social world. •  This is based on there being one single reality that we can know and explain. •  Knowledge is gained through experience – observation, measurement and experimentation. •  Let’s look at these points in more detail… 4Positivism – Key Principles •  There are five key principles of positivism: 1.  Objectivism 2.  Empiricism 3.  Scientific method (and scientific knowledge) 4.  Value freedom 5.  Instrumental (useful) knowledge 5Objectivism (Ontology) •  Positivism is based on an objectivist view of reality. – There is a real world independent of our knowledge of it. •  The job of the social scientist is to neutrally observe and discover this reality. 6Empiricism •  The belief that knowledge comes from direct observation and experimentation. •  Knowledge is verified (proved) through repeated observation. •  Researchers used repeated observation to discover and verify universal laws and theories. – Laws are generalised, descriptive statements of observed phenomenon – Theories are generalised, explanatory statements of observed phenomenon 7Scientific Method •  The scientific method is a logical process for the gaining of objective knowledge. •  It is intended to be an unbiased way of discovering truth: – If the scientific method is followed, then the results of observation should be accurate. – It does not matter who makes the observation. •  The scientific method is a way of discovering and testing scientific laws and theories. 8Scientific Method 9 Obsv •  Observation •  observation and description of phenomena Hypo •  Hypothesis •  develop a hypothesis to explain the phenomena Pred •  Prediction •  use hypothesis to predict other phenomena or results of future observations Test •  Testing •  test the predictions using observations and experimentsScientific Method 10 Observation Hypothesis Prediction Testing Hypothesis proved Hypothesis disproved TheoryScientific Knowledge •  If the scientific method is followed, then the knowledge that is discovered will also be scientific. •  So the scientific method will produce scientific knowledge. •  Scientific knowledge has to be: – Based on observation – Unbiased (objective) – Concerned with truth – Universal – Reliable 11Value Freedom •  As we have seen, the gaining of objective knowledge is a neutral process and activity. – The beliefs, values and opinions of the researcher should not have any role in the gaining of knowledge. •  Positivism therefore involves a separation between facts and values: 12Value Freedom •  Values cannot come from facts, and facts cannot come from values. •  Truth can be verified through observation, values cannot. •  Therefore scientific knowledge is seen as different from, and sometimes superior to, other types of knowledge. 13Instrumental Knowledge •  Instrumental knowledge refer to knowledge that can and should be put to use in society. •  This goes back to the fundamental aim of social science: – To understand and explain social problems, and identify solutions. •  This links to the idea of progress: – Over time we gain a more accurate understanding of the world; – We can then use this knowledge to benefit people. 14Origins of Positivism •  As we saw in Week 1, social science’s origins are in the development of modern natural science. – The Scientific Revolution 1550-1700 •  The development of positivism as an epistemology is the start of social science. •  Auguste Comte is the scholar who developed the positivist epistemology… 15Auguste Comte 1798-1857 •  From 1830-1848 Comte published a series of books that detailed positivism. •  He believed that the natural sciences had reached the stage of discovering truth, through direct observation. •  However, intellectual thought regarding society was focused on abstract ideas: – Universal rights, freedom, equality. – These things cannot be observed. 16Auguste Comte 1798-1857 •  Comte then argued that if we were to properly understand society, then we needed to study the social world in the same way the sciences study the natural world. •  Then social science could achieve the same status as natural science •  Comte has been hugely influential both in: – The philosophy of epistemology; – The practice of social science. 17Positivism in Practice - Durkheim •  Durkheim (1858-1917) was another scholar who was hugely influential in the foundation of social science, and was influenced by positivism. •  Durkheim argued that social institutions outlive the particular individuals who inhabit them: – Social movements – feminism – Organisations – government – Social structures – family •  Durkheim called these ‘social facts’. 18Positivism in Practice - Durkheim •  Social facts: ways of acting, or patterns of behaviour, that are an external constraint on individuals. •  Therefore for Durkheim, these social facts must have a reality of their own – objectivist ontology •  If this is so, then the existence of them can be established through the observation of social behaviour. •  Durkheim tried to establish this through his study of suicide… 19Positivism in Practice - Durkheim •  Durkheim attempted to find out whether suicide was caused by society rather than an individual’s mental state. •  He collected statistics on suicide rates across Europe •  He looked at the differences in suicide rates among countries and different categories of people •  He argued that suicide rates are not affected by non-social factors, such as race, genetics, mental disorder, climate or season of the year. 20Positivism in Practice - Durkheim •  Durkheim argued that suicide rates are affected by social factors, such as religious faith, marital status, employment and sudden change income: – Individuals with a stronger integration to a religious community had lower levels of suicide •  The main method he took from positivism was the use of evidence gained from observations of statistical data to establish the existence of social facts. 21Positivism: Summary •  Positivism is an epistemology that applies the scientific method to the study of society. •  5 key principles: 1.  Objectivism 2.  Empiricism 3.  Scientific method 4.  Value freedom 5.  Instrumental knowledge 22Positivism: Summary •  2 influential key thinkers: – Auguste Comte: developed positivism based on the success of the natural sciences. – Emile Durkheim: used positivism in his empirical study of society and social behaviour. 23 [Show More]

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