Finance 11 _ SchweserNotes_Book_5_2_115_2020 CFA Program Exam Preparation | Alternative Investments and Portfolio Management

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STUDY SESSION 15 The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 39. Private Real Estate Investments The candidate should be able to: a. classify and describe b... asic forms of real estate investments. (page 1) b. describe the characteristics, the classification, and basic segments of real estate. (page 3) c. explain the role in a portfolio, economic value determinants, investment characteristics, and principal risks of private real estate. (page 4) d. describe commercial property types, including their distinctive investment characteristics. (page 6) e. compare the income, cost, and sales comparison approaches to valuing real estate properties. (page 8) f. estimate and interpret the inputs (for example, net operating income, capitalization rate, and discount rate) to the direct capitalization and discounted cash flow valuation methods. (page 10) g. calculate the value of a property using the direct capitalization and discounted cash flow valuation methods. (page 10) h. compare the direct capitalization and discounted cash flow valuation methods. (page 19) i. calculate the value of a property using the cost and sales comparison approaches. (page 20) j. describe due diligence in private equity real estate investment. (page 25) k. discuss private equity real estate investment indexes, including their construction and potential biases. (page 26) l. explain the role in a portfolio, the major economic value determinants, investment characteristics, principal risks, and due diligence of private real estate debt investment. (page 4) m. calculate and interpret financial ratios used to analyze and evaluate private real estate investments. (page 27) The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 40. Publicly Traded Real Estate Securities The candidate should be able to: a. describe types of publicly traded real estate securities. (page 35) b. explain advantages and disadvantages of investing in real estate through publicly traded securities. (page 36) c. explain economic value determinants, investment characteristics, principal risks, and due diligence considerations for real estate investment trust (REIT) shares. (page 39) d. describe types of REITs. (page 41) e. justify the use of net asset value per share (NAVPS) in REIT valuation and estimate NAVPS based on forecasted cash net operating income. (page 44) f. describe the use of funds from operations (FFO) and adjusted funds from operations (AFFO) in REIT valuation. (page 48) g. compare the net asset value, relative value (price-to-FFO and price-to-AFFO), and discounted cash flow approaches to REIT valuation. (page 49) h. calculate the value of a REIT share using net asset value, price-to-FFO and price-toAFFO, and discounted cash flow approaches. (page 50) 2021新版CFAFRM 一二三级视频课程 需要加微信 cfafrm007The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 41. Private Equity Valuation The candidate should be able to: a. explain sources of value creation in private equity. (page 64) b. explain how private equity firms align their interests with those of the managers of portfolio companies. (page 65) c. distinguish between the characteristics of buyout and venture capital investments. (page 66) d. describe valuation issues in buyout and venture capital transactions. (page 71) e. explain alternative exit routes in private equity and their impact on value. (page 75) f. explain private equity fund structures, terms, valuation, and due diligence in the context of an analysis of private equity fund returns. (page 76) g. explain risks and costs of investing in private equity. (page 81) h. interpret and compare financial performance of private equity funds from the perspective of an investor. (page 83) i. calculate management fees, carried interest, net asset value, distributed to paid in (DPI), residual value to paid in (RVPI), and total value to paid in (TVPI) of a private equity fund. (page 87) j. calculate pre-money valuation, post-money valuation, ownership fraction, and price per share applying the venture capital method 1) with single and multiple financing rounds and 2) in terms of IRR. (page 91) k. demonstrate alternative methods to account for risk in venture capital. (page 97) The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 42. Introduction to Commodities and Commodity Derivatives The candidate should be able to: a. compare characteristics of commodity sectors. (page 113) b. compare the life cycle of commodity sectors from production through trading or consumption. (page 116) c. contrast the valuation of commodities with the valuation of equities and bonds. (page 117) d. describe types of participants in commodity futures markets. (page 117) e. analyze the relationship between spot prices and future prices in markets in contango and markets in backwardation. (page 118) f. compare theories of commodity futures returns. (page 119) g. describe, calculate, and interpret the components of total return for a fully collateralized commodity futures contract. (page 121) h. contrast roll return in markets in contango and markets in backwardation. (page 122) i. describe how commodity swaps are used to obtain or modify exposure to commodities. (page 122) j. describe how the construction of commodity indexes affects index returns. (page 124) 2021新版CFAFRM 一二三级视频课程 需要加微信 cfafrm007STUDY SESSION 16 The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 43. Exchange-Traded Funds: Mechanics and Applications The candidate should be able to: a. explain the creation/redemption process of ETFs and the function of authorized participants. (page 133) b. describe how ETFs are traded in secondary markets. (page 135) c. describe sources of tracking error for ETFs. (page 135) d. describe factors affecting ETF bid–ask spreads. (page 137) e. describe sources of ETF premiums and discounts to NAV. (page 138) f. describe costs of owning an ETF. (page 139) g. describe types of ETF risk. (page 140) h. identify and describe portfolio uses of ETFs. (page 142) The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 44. Using Multifactor Models The candidate should be able to: a. describe arbitrage pricing theory (APT), including its underlying assumptions and its relation to multifactor models. (page 149) b. define arbitrage opportunity and determine whether an arbitrage opportunity exists. (page 150) c. calculate the expected return on an asset given an asset’s factor sensitivities and the factor risk premiums. (page 152) d. describe and compare macroeconomic factor models, fundamental factor models, and statistical factor models. (page 154) e. explain sources of active risk and interpret tracking risk and the information ratio. (page 159) f. describe uses of multifactor models and interpret the output of analyses based on multifactor models. (page 161) g. describe the potential benefits for investors in considering multiple risk dimensions when modeling asset returns. (page 166) The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 45. Measuring and Managing Market Risk The candidate should be able to: a. explain the use of value at risk (VaR) in measuring portfolio risk. (page 173) b. compare the parametric (variance–covariance), historical simulation, and Monte Carlo simulation methods for estimating VaR. (page 174) c. estimate and interpret VaR under the parametric, historical simulation, and Monte Carlo simulation methods. (page 174) d. describe advantages and limitations of VaR. (page 177) e. describe extensions of VaR. (page 178) f. describe sensitivity risk measures and scenario risk measures and compare these measures to VaR. (page 179) g. demonstrate how equity, fixed-income, and options exposure measures may be used in measuring and managing market risk and volatility risk. (page 180) h. describe the use of sensitivity risk measures and scenario risk measures. (page 181) 2021新版CFAFRM 一二三级视频课程 需要加微信 cfafrm007i. describe advantages and limitations of sensitivity risk measures and scenario risk measures. (page 182) j. describe risk measures used by banks, asset managers, pension funds, and insurers. (page 183) k. explain constraints used in managing market risks, including risk budgeting, position limits, scenario limits, and stop-loss limits. (page 185) l. explain how risk measures may be used in capital allocation decisions. (page 186) 2021新版CFAFRM 一二三级视频课程 需要加微信 cfafrm007STUDY SESSION 17 The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 46. Economics and Investment Markets The candidate should be able to: a. explain the notion that to affect market values, economic factors must affect one or more of the following: 1) default-free interest rates across maturities, 2) the timing and/or magnitude of expected cash flows, and 3) risk premiums. (page 191) b. explain the role of expectations and changes in expectations in market valuation. (page 192) c. explain the relationship between the long-term growth rate of the economy, the volatility of the growth rate, and the average level of real short-term interest rates. (page 192) d. explain how the phase of the business cycle affects policy and short-term interest rates, the slope of the term structure of interest rates, and the relative performance of bonds of differing maturities. (page 194) e. describe the factors that affect yield spreads between non-inflation-adjusted and inflation-indexed bonds. (page 195) f. explain how the phase of the business cycle affects credit spreads and the performance of credit-sensitive fixed-income instruments. (page 196) g. explain how the characteristics of the markets for a company’s products affect the company’s credit quality. (page 197) h. explain how the phase of the business cycle affects short-term and long-term earnings growth expectations. (page 197) i. explain the relationship between the consumption-hedging properties of equity and the equity risk premium. (page 198) j. describe cyclical effects on valuation multiples. (page 198) k. describe the implications of the business cycle for a given style strategy (value, growth, small capitalization, large capitalization). (page 199) l. describe how economic analysis is used in sector rotation strategies. (page 199) m. describe the economic factors affecting investment in commercial real estate. (page 199) The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 47. Analysis of Active Portfolio Management The candidate should be able to: a. describe how value added by active management is measured. (page 207) b. calculate and interpret the information ratio (ex post and ex ante) and contrast it to the Sharpe ratio. (page 211) c. state and interpret the fundamental law of active portfolio management including its component terms—transfer coefficient, information coefficient, breadth, and active risk (aggressiveness). (page 214) d. explain how the information ratio may be useful in investment manager selection and choosing the level of active portfolio risk. (page 216) e. compare active management strategies (including market timing and security selection) and evaluate strategy changes in terms of the fundamental law of active management. (page 216) f. describe the practical strengths and limitations of the fundamental law of active management. (page 219)The topical coverage corresponds with the following CFA Institute assigned reading: 48. Trading Costs and Electronic Markets The candidate should be able to: a. explain the components of execution costs, including explicit and implicit costs. (page 223) b. calculate and interpret effective spreads and VWAP transaction cost estimates. (page 225) c. describe the implementation shortfall approach to transaction cost measurement. (page 228) d. describe factors driving the development of electronic trading systems. (page 230) e. describe market fragmentation. (page 231) f. distinguish among types of electronic traders. (page 231) g. describe characteristics and uses of electronic trading systems. (page 234) h. describe comparative advantages of low-latency traders. (page 233) i. describe the risks associated with electronic trading and how regulators mitigate them. (page 238) j. describe abusive trading practices that real-time surveillance of markets may detect. (page 239)Video covering this content is available online. The following is a review of the Alternative Investments principles designed to address the learning outcome statements set forth by CFA Institute. Cross-Reference to CFA Institute Assigned Reading #39. READING 39: PRIVATE REAL ESTATE INVESTMENTS Study Session 15 EXAM FOCUS This topic review concentrates on valuation of real estate. The focus is on the three valuation approaches used for appraisal purposes, especially the income approach. Make sure you can calculate the value of a property using the direct capitalization method and the discounted cash flow method. Make certain you understand the relationship between the capitalization rate and the discount rate. Finally, understand the investment characteristics and risks involved with real estate investments. MODULE 39.1: INTRODUCTION AND COMMERCIAL PROPERTY TYPES LOS 39.a: Classify and describe basic forms of real estate investments. CFA® Program Curriculum, Volume 6, page 7 FORMS OF REAL ESTATE There are four basic forms of real estate investment that can be described in terms of a twodimensional quadrant. In the first dimension, the investment can be described in terms of public or private markets. In the private market, ownership usually involves a direct investment like purchasing property or lending money to a purchaser. Direct investments can be solely owned or indirectly owned through partnerships or commingled real estate funds (CREF). The public market does not involve direct investment; rather, ownership involves securities that serve as claims on the underlying assets. Public real estate investment includes ownership of a real estate investment trust (REIT), a real estate operating company (REOC), and mortgage-backed securities. The second dimension describes whether an investment involves debt or equity. An equity investor has an ownership interest in real estate or securities of an entity that owns real estate. Equity investors control decisions such as borrowing money, property management, and the exit strategy. A debt investor is a lender that owns a mortgage or mortgage securities. Usually, the mortgage is collateralized (secured) by the underlying real estate. In this case, the lender has a superior claim over an equity investor in the event of default. Since the lender must be repaid first, the value of an equity investor’s interest is equal to the value of the property less the outstanding debt.Each of the basic forms has its own risk, expected returns, regulations, legal issues, and market structure. Private real estate investments are usually larger than public investments because real estate is indivisible and illiquid. Public real estate investments allow the property to remain undivided while allowing investors divided ownership. As a result, public real estate investments are more liquid and enable investors to diversify by participating in more properties. Real estate must be actively managed. Private real estate investment requires property management expertise on the part of the owner or a property management company. In the case of a REIT or REOC, the real estate is professionally managed; thus, investors need no property management expertise. Equity investors usually require a higher rate of return than mortgage lenders because of higher risk. As previously discussed, lenders have a superior claim in the event of default. As financial leverage (use of debt financing) increases, return requirements of both lenders and equity investors increase as a result of higher risk. Typically, lenders expect to receive returns from promised cash flows and do not participate in the appreciation of the underlying property. Equity investors expect to receive an income stream as a result of renting the property and the appreciation of value over time. Figure 39.1 summarizes the basic forms of real estate investment and can be used to identify the investment that best meets an investor’s objectives. Figure 39.1: Basic Forms of Real Estate Investment Debt Equity Private Mortgages Direct investments such as sole ownership, partnerships, and other forms of commingled funds Public Mortgage-backed securities Shares of REITs and REOCs LOS 39.b: Describe the characteristics, the classification, and basic segments of real estate. CFA® Program Curriculum, Volume 6, page 9 REAL ESTATE CHARACTERISTICS Real estate investment differs from other asset classes, like stocks and bonds, and can complicate measurement and performance assessment. Heterogeneity. Bonds from a particular issue are alike, as are stocks of a specific company. However, no two properties are exactly the same because of location, size, age, construction materials, tenants, and lease terms. High unit value. Because real estate is indivisible, the unit value is significantly higher than stocks and bonds, which makes it difficult to construct a diversified portfolio. Active management. Investors in stocks and bonds are not necessarily involved in the day-to-day management of the companies. Private real estate investment requires active property management by the owner or a property management company. Property 2021新版CFAFRM 一二三级视频课程 需要加微信 cfafrm007management involves maintenance, negotiating leases, and collection of rents. In either case, property management costs must be considered. High transaction costs. Buying and selling real estate is costly because it involves appraisers, lawyers, brokers, and construction personnel. Depreciation and desirability. Buildings wear out over time. Also, buildings may become less desirable because of location, design, or obsolescence. Cost and availability of debt capital. Because of the high costs to acquire and develop real estate, property values are impacted by the level of interest rates and availability of debt capital. Real estate values are usually lower when interest rates are high and debt capital is scarce. Lack of liquidity. Real estate is illiquid. It takes time to market and complete the sale of property. Difficulty in determining price. Stocks and bonds of public firms usually trade in active markets. However, because of heterogeneity and low transaction volume, appraisals are usually necessary to assess real estate values. Even then, appraised values are often based on similar, not identical, properties. The combination of limited market participants and lack of knowledge of the local markets makes it difficult for an outsider to value property. As a result, the market is less efficient. However, investors with superior information and skill may have an advantage in exploiting the market inefficiencies. The market for REITs has expanded to overcome many of the problems involved with direct investment. Shares of a REIT are actively traded and are more likely to reflect market value. In addition, investing in a REIT can provide exposure to a diversified real estate portfolio. Finally, investors don’t need property management expertise because the REIT manages the properties. PROPERTY CLASSIFICATIONS Real estate is commonly classified as residential or non-residential. Residential real estate includes single-family (owner-occupied) homes and multi-family properties, such as apartments. Residential real estate purchased with the intent to produce income is usually considered commercial real estate property. Non-residential real estate includes commercial properties, other than multi-family properties, and other properties such as farmland and timberland. Commercial real estate is usually classified by its end use and includes multi-family, office, industrial/warehouse, retail, hospitality, and other types of properties such as parking facilities, restaurants, and recreational properties. A mixed-use development is a property that serves more than one end user. Some commercial properties require more management attention than others. For example, of all the commercial property types, hotels require the most day-to-day attention and are more like operating a business. Because of higher operational risk, investors require higher rates of return on management-intensive properties. Farmland and timberland are unique categories (separate from commercial real estate classification) because each can produce a saleable commodity as well as have the potential for capital appreciation.LOS 39.c: Explain the role in a portfolio, economic value determinants, investment characteristics, and principal risks of private real estate. LOS 39.l: Explain the role in a portfolio, the major economic value determinants, investment characteristics, principal risks, and due diligence of private real estate debt investment. CFA® Program Curriculum, Volume 6, pages 13 and 61 REASONS TO INVEST IN REAL ESTATE Current income. Investors may expect to earn income from collecting rents and after paying operating expenses, financing costs, and taxes. Capital appreciation. Investors usually expect property values to increase over time, which forms part of their total return. Inflation hedge. During inflation, investors expect both rents and property values to rise. Diversification. Real estate, especially private equity investment, is less than perfectly correlated with the returns of stocks and bonds. Thus, adding private real estate investment to a portfolio can reduce risk relative to the expected return. Tax benefits. In some countries, real estate investors receive favorable tax treatment. For example, in the United States, the depreciable life of real estate is usually shorter than the actual life. As a result, depreciation expense is higher, and taxable income is lower resulting in lower income taxes. Also, REITs do not pay taxes in some countries, which allow investors to escape double taxation (e.g., taxation at the corporate level and the individual level). PRINCIPAL RISKS Business conditions. Numerous economic factors—such as gross domestic product (GDP), employment, household income, interest rates, and inflation—affect the rental market. New property lead time. Market conditions can change significantly while approvals are obtained, while the property is completed, and when the property is fully leased. During the lead time, if market conditions weaken, the resultant lower demand affects rents and vacancy resulting in lower returns. Cost and availability of capital. Real estate must compete with other investments for capital. As previously discussed, demand for real estate is reduced when debt capital is scarce and interest rates are high. Conversely, demand is higher when debt capital is easily obtained and interest rates are low. Thus, real estate prices can be affected by capital market forces without changes in demand from tenants. Unexpected inflation. Some leases provide inflation protection by allowing owners to increase rent or pass through expenses because of inflation. Real estate values may not keep up with inflation when markets are weak and vacancy rates are high. Demographic factors. The demand for real estate is affected by the size and age distribution of the local market population, the distribution of socioeconomic groups, and new householdformation rates. Lack of liquidity. Because of the size and complexity of most real estate transactions, buyers and lenders usually perform due diligence, which takes time and is costly. A quick sale will typically require a significant discount. Environmental issues. Real estate values can be significantly reduced when a property has been contaminated by a prior owner or adjacent property owner. Availability of information. A lack of information when performing property analysis increases risk. The availability of data depends on the country, but generally more information is available as real estate investments become more global. Management expertise. Property managers and asset managers must make important operational decisions—such as negotiating leases, property maintenance, marketing, and renovating the property—when necessary. Leverage. The use of debt (leverage) to finance a real estate purchase is measured by the loan-to-value (LTV) ratio. Higher LTV results in higher leverage and, thus, higher risk because lenders have a superior claim in the event of default. With leverage, a small decrease in net operating income (NOI) negatively magnifies the amount of cash flow available to equity investors after debt service. Other factors. Other risk factors, such as unobserved property defects, natural disasters, and acts of terrorism, may be unidentified at the time of purchase. In some cases, risks that can be identified can be hedged using insurance. In other cases, risk can be shifted to the tenants. For example, a lease agreement could require the tenant to reimburse any unexpected operating expenses. The Role of Real Estate in a Portfolio Real estate investment has both bond-like and stock-like characteristics. Leases are contractual agreements that usually call for periodic rental payments, similar to the coupon payments of a bond. When a lease expires, there is uncertainty regarding renewal and future rental rates. This uncertainty is affected by the availability of competing space, tenant profitability, and the state of the overall economy, just as stock prices are affected by the same factors. As a result, the risk/return profile of real estate as an asset class, is usually between the risk/return profiles of stocks and bonds. Role of Leverage in Real Estate Investment So far, our discussion of valuation has ignored debt financing. Earlier we determined that the level of interest rates and the availability of debt capital impact real estate prices. However, the percentage of debt and equity used by an investor to finance real estate does not affect the property’s value. Investors use debt financing (leverage) to increase returns. As long as the investment return is greater than the interest paid to lenders, there is positive leverage and returns are magnified. Of course, leverage can also work in reverse. Because of the greater uncertainty involved with debt financing, risk is higher since lenders have a superior claim to cash flow. LOS 39.d: Describe commercial property types, including their distinctive investment characteristics.CFA® Program Curriculum, Volume 6, page 19 Commercial Property Types The basic property types used to create a low-risk portfolio include office, industrial/warehouse, retail, and multi-family. Some investors include hospitality properties (hotels and motels) even though the properties are considered riskier since leases are not involved and performance is highly correlated with the business cycle. It is important to know that with all property types, location is critical in determining value. Office. Demand is heavily dependent on job growth, especially in industries that are heavy users of office space like finance and insurance. The average length of office leases varies globally. In a gross lease, the owner is responsible for the operating expenses, and in a net lease, the tenant is responsible. In a net lease, the tenant bears the risk if the actual operating expenses are greater than expected. As a result, rent under a net lease is lower than a gross lease. Some leases combine features from both gross and net leases. For example, the owner might pay the operating expenses in the first year of the lease. Thereafter, any increase in the expenses is passed through to the tenant. In a multi-tenant building, the expenses are usually prorated based on square footage. Understanding how leases are structured is imperative in analyzing real estate investments. Industrial. Demand is heavily dependent on the overall economy. Demand is also affected by import/export activity of the economy. Net leases are common. Retail. Demand is heavily dependent on consumer spending. Consumer spending is affected by the overall economy, job growth, population growth, and savings rates. Retail lease terms vary by the quality of the property as well as the size and importance of the tenant. For example, an anchor tenant may receive favorable lease terms to attract them to the property. In turn, the anchor tenant will draw other tenants to the property. Retail tenants are often required to pay additional rent once sales reach a certain level. This unique feature is known as a percentage lease or percentage rent. Accordingly, the lease will specify a minimum amount of rent to be paid without regard to sales. The minimum rent also serves as the starting point for calculating the percentage rent. For example, suppose that a retail lease specifies minimum rent of $20 per square foot plus 5% of sales over $400 per square foot. If sales were $400 per square foot, the minimum rent and percentage rent would be equivalent ($400 sales per square foot × 5% = $20 per square foot). In this case, $400 is known as the natural breakpoint. If sales are $500 per square foot, rent per square foot is equal to $25 [$20 minimum rent + $5 percentage rent ($500 − $400) × 5%]. Alternatively, rent per square foot is equal to $500 sales per square foot × 5% = $25 because of the natural breakpoint. Multi-family. Demand depends on population growth, especially in the age demographic that typically rents apartments. The age demographic can vary by country, type of property, and locale. Demand is also affected by the cost of buying versus the cost of renting, which is measured by the ratio of home prices to rents. As home prices rise, there is a shift toward renting. An increase in interest rates will also make buying more expensive.Video covering this content is available online. MODULE QUIZ 39.1 To best evaluate your performance, enter your quiz answers online. 1. Which form of investment is most appropriate for a first-time real estate investor that is concerned about liquidity and diversification? A. Direct ownership of a suburban office building. B. Shares of a real estate investment trust. C. An undivided participation interest in a commercial mortgage. 2. Which of the following real estate properties is most likely classified as commercial real estate? A. A residential apartment building. B. Timberland and farmland. C. An owner-occupied, single-family home. 3. A real estate investor is concerned about rising interest rates and decides to pay cash for a property instead of financing the transaction with debt. What is the most likely effect of this strategy? A. Inflation risk is eliminated. B. Risk of changing interest rates is eliminated. C. Risk is reduced because of lower leverage. 4. Which of the following best describes the primary economic driver of demand for multi-family real estate? A. Growth in savings rates. B. Job growth, especially in the finance and insurance industries. C. Population growth. 5. Which of the following statements about financial leverage is most accurate? A. Debt financing increases the appraised value of a property because interest expense is tax deductible. B. Increasing financial leverage reduces risk to the equity owner. C. For a property financed with debt, a change in NOI will result in a more than proportionate change in cash flow. MODULE 39.2: VALUATION APPROACHES, DIRECT CAPITALIZATION, AND NOI LOS 39.e: Compare the income, cost, and sales comparison approaches to valuing real estate properties. CFA® Program Curriculum, Volume 6, page 25 REAL ESTATE APPRAISALS Since commercial real estate transactions are infrequent, appraisals are used to estimate value or assess changes in value over time in order to measure performance. In most cases, the focus of an appraisal is market value; that is, the most probable sales price a typical investor is willing to pay. Other definitions of value include investment value, the value or worth that considers a particular investor’s motivations; value in use, the value to a particular user such as a manufacturer that is using the property as a part of its business; and assessed value that is used by a taxing authority. For purposes of valuing collateral, lenders sometimes use a more conservative mortgage lending value. Valuation ApproachesAppraisers use three different approaches to value real estate: the cost approach, the sales comparison approach, and the income approach. The premise of the cost approach is that a buyer would not pay more for a property than it would cost to purchase land and construct a comparable building. Consequently, under the cost approach, value is derived by adding the value of the land to the current replacement cost of a new building less adjustments for estimated depreciation and obsolescence. Because of the difficulty in measuring depreciation and obsolescence, the cost approach is most useful when the subject property is relatively new. The cost approach is often used for unusual properties or properties where comparable transactions are limited. The premise of the sales comparison approach is that a buyer would pay no more for a property than others are paying for similar properties. With the sales comparison approach, the sale prices of similar (comparable) properties are adjusted for differences with the subject property. The sales comparison approach is most useful when there are a number of properties similar to the subject that have recently sold, as is usually the case with singlefamily homes. The premise of the income approach is that value is based on the expected rate of return required by a buyer to invest in the subject property. With the income approach, value is equal to the present value of the subject’s future cash flows. The income approach is most useful in commercial real estate transactions. Highest and Best Use The concept of highest and best use is important in determining value. The highest and best use of a vacant site is not necessarily the use that results in the highest total value once a project is completed. Rather, the highest and best use of a vacant site is the use that produces the highest implied land value. The implied land value is equal to the value of the property once construction is completed less the cost of constructing the improvements, including profit to the developer to handle construction and lease-out. EXAMPLE: Highest and best use An investor is considering a site to build either an apartment building or a shopping center. Once construction is complete, the apartment building would have an estimated value of €50 million and the shopping center would have an estimated value of €40 million. Construction costs, including developer profit, are estimated at €45 million for the apartment building and €34 million for the shopping center. Calculate the highest and best use of the site. Answer: The shopping center is the highest and best use for the site because the €6 million implied land value of the shopping center is higher than the €5 million implied land value of the apartment building as follows: Apartment Building Shopping Center Value when completed €50,000,000 €40,000,000 Less: Construction costs 45,000,000 34,000,000 Implied land value €5,000,000 €6,000,000 Note that the highest and best use is not based on the highest value when the projects are completed but, rather, the highest implied land value.LOS 39.f: Estimate and interpret the inputs (for example, net operating income, capitalization rate, and discount rate) to the direct capitalization and discounted cash flow valuation methods. LOS 39.g: Calculate the value of a property using the direct capitalization and discounted cash flow valuation methods. CFA® Program Curriculum, Volume 6, pages 27 and 29 INCOME APPROACH The income approach includes two different valuation methods: the direct capitalization method and the discounted cash flow method. With the direct capitalization method, value is based on capitalizing the first year NOI of the property using a capitalization rate. With the discounted cash flow method, value is based on the present value of the property’s future cash flows using an appropriate discount rate. Value is based on NOI under both methods. As shown in Figure 39.2, NOI is the amount of income remaining after subtracting vacancy and collection losses, and operating expenses (e.g., insurance, property taxes, utilities, maintenance, and repairs) from potential gross income. NOI is calculated before subtracting financing costs and income taxes. Figure 39.2: Net Operating Income Rental income if fully occupied + Other income = Potential gross income – Vacancy and collection loss = Effective gross income – Operating expense = Net operating income EXAMPLE: Net operating income Calculate net operating income (NOI) using the following information: Property type Office building Property size 200,000 square feet Gross rental income €25 per square foot Other income €75,000 Vacancy and collection loss 5% of potential gross income Property taxes and insurance €350,000 Utilities and maintenance €875,000 Interest expense €400,000 Income tax rate 40% Answer: Gross rental income €5,000,000 [200,000 SF × €25] Other income 75,000 Potential gross income €5,075,000 Vacancy and collection losses (253,750)[5,075,000 × 5%]- - - [Show More]

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