NYSTCE CST Multisubject Part 1 (241). Exam Review, 100% Comprehension.

NYSTCE CST Multisubject Part 1 (241). Exam Review, 100% Comprehension. Phonics - ✔✔-A method of teaching students to read by correlating sounds with letters or groups of letters in an alphabetic writing system. Chil ...

NYSTCE CST Multisubject Part 1 (241). Exam Review, 100% Comprehension. Phonics - ✔✔-A method of teaching students to read by correlating sounds with letters or groups of letters in an alphabetic writing system. Children are taught, for example, that the letter n represents the sound /n/, and that it is the first letter in words such as nose, nice and new. Phonological Processing - ✔✔-The use of phonemes to process spoken and written language. The broad category of phonological processing includes phonological awareness, phonological working memory, and phonological retrieval. Phonological Awareness - ✔✔-Awareness of the sound structure of a language and the ability to consciously analyze and manipulate this structure via a range of tasks, such as speech sound segmentation and blending at the word, onset-rime, syllable, and phonemic levels. Development of Phonological Awareness - ✔✔-1. Word awareness 2. Responsiveness to rhyme and alliteration during word play 3. Syllable awareness 4. Onset and rime manipulation 5. Phoneme awareness 1. Word awareness - ✔✔-Tracking the words in sentences. Knowledge that words have meaning. (less important to teach directly) Strategy: read-aloud, alphabet chants, high-frequency word books 2. Responsiveness to rhyme and alliteration during word play - ✔✔-Enjoying and reciting learned rhyming words or alliterative phrases in familiar storybooks or nursery rhymes. Strategy: poetry books, alphabet chants, picture flashcards w/ objects whose names rhyme. (Flashcards can be used in sorting and classifying activities.) 3. Syllable awareness - ✔✔-Counting, tapping, blending, or segmenting a word into syllables. Strategy: Flashcards w/ objects whose names contain different numbers of syllables. (Flashcards can be used in sorting activity.) 4. Onset and rime manipulation - ✔✔-Onset is the initial consonant in a one-syllable word. Rime includes the remaining sounds, including the vowel and any sounds that follow. The ability to produce a rhyming word depends on understanding that rhyming words have the same rime. Recognizing a rhyme is much easier than producing a rhyme. Strategy: Blending and substitution activities. 5. Phonemic awareness - ✔✔-This is the student's awareness of the smallest units of sound in a word. It also refers to a student's ability to segment, blend, and manipulate these units. - Identify and match the initial sounds in words, then the final and middle sounds (e.g., "Which picture begins with /m/?"; "Find another picture that ends in /r/"). - Segment and produce the initial sound, then the final and middle sounds (e.g., "What sound does zoo start with?"; "Say the last sound in milk"; "Say the vowel sound in rope"). - Blend sounds into words (e.g., "Listen: /f/ /ē/ /t/. Say it fast"). - Segment the phonemes in two- or three-sound words, moving to four- and five- sound words as the student becomes proficient (e.g., "The word is eyes. Stretch and say the sounds: /ī/ /z/"). - Manipulate phonemes by removing, adding, or substituting sounds (e.g., "Say smoke without the /m/"). Strategy: listening to alliterative passages, blending and segmenting words, and manipulating sounds in words through substitution, deletion, and addition of phonemics. Elkonin boxes are provided for tactile blending and segmenting activities. Phonological Working Memory - ✔✔-Involves storing phoneme information in a temporary, short-term memory store. This phonemic information is then readily available for manipulation during phonological awareness tasks. Phonological Retrieval - ✔✔-Phonological retrieval is the ability to recall the phonemes associated with specific graphemes, which can be assessed by rapid naming tasks. Phoneme Manipulation Task (Strategy) - ✔✔-Tasks that tap into phonological processing, such as phoneme manipulation tasks (say "cat" without the kuh), have proven to be some of the strongest correlates and predictors of learning to read. Orthographic Processing - ✔✔-Defined as "the ability to form, store, and access orthographic representations." Orthography is the methodology of writing a language, which primarily consists of spelling, but includes, contractions, punctuation and capitalization. Semantic Processing - ✔✔-Encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning. Syntactic Processing - ✔✔-The order and arrangement of words in phrases and sentences; you might depend in part on syntactic processing to know the difference between "The cat is on the mat" and "The mat is on the cat." Discourse Processing - ✔✔-Focus on the ways in which readers and listeners comprehend language. Development of Oral Language - ✔✔-1. Cooing 2. Babbling 3. One-Word Stage 4. Telegraphic Stage 5. Beginning Oral Fluency 1. Cooing - ✔✔-As early as six weeks, infants begin to make cooing sounds, resemble vowel sounds. Children are learning to make sounds by manipulating their tongues, mouths, and breathing. 2. Babbling - ✔✔-Around 4-6 mo, they begin to babble making repeated consonant-vowel sounds. More complex babbling develops around 8-10 mo. 3. One-Word Stage - ✔✔-Around 1 yr, children begin to produce word-like units. Known as idiomorphs (invented word). Use a stable language unit to communicate meaning. 4. Telegraphic Stage - ✔✔-Toddlers string several words together. i.e. "go bye-bye" or "cookie all gone" 5. Beginning Oral Fluency - ✔✔-By age 3-4, children are moderately fluent in language used at home. Development of Reading - ✔✔-1. Emerging pre-reader (6 mo to 6 yrs) 2. Novice reader (6-7 yrs) 3. Decoding reader (7-9 yrs) 4. Fluent, comprehending reader (9-15 yrs) 5. Expert reader (16 yrs +) 1. Emerging pre-reader - ✔✔-The emergent pre-reader sits on 'beloved laps,' samples and learns from a full range of multiple sounds, words, concepts, images, stories, exposure to print, literacy materials, and just plain talk during the first five years of life. The major insight in this period is that reading never just happens to anyone. Emerging reading arises out of years of perceptions, increasing conceptual and social development, and cumulative exposures to oral and written language. By the end of this stage, the child "pretends" to read, can - over time - retell a story when looking at pages of book previously read to him/her, can names letters of alphabet; can recognise some signs; can prints own name; and plays with books, pencils and paper. The child acquires skills by being read to by an adult (or older child) who responds to the child's questions and who warmly appreciates the child's interest in books and reading. The child understand thousands of words they hear by age 6 but can read few if any of them. 2. Novice reader - ✔✔-In this stage, the child is learning the relationships between letters and sounds and between printed and spoken words. The child starts to read simple text containing high frequency words and phonically regular words, and uses emerging skills and insights to "sound out" new onesyllable words. There is direct instruction in letter-sound relations (phonics). The child is being read to on a level above what a child can read independently to develop more advanced language patterns, vocabulary and concepts. In late Stage 2, most children can understand up to 4000 or more words when heard but can read about 600. 3. Decoding reader - ✔✔-In this stage, the child is reading simple, familiar stories and selections with increasing fluency. This is done by consolidating the basic decoding elements, sight vocabulary, and meaning in the reading of familiar stories and selections. There is direct instruction in advanced decoding skills as well as wide reading of familiar, interesting materials. The child is still being read to at levels above their own independent reading level to develop language, vocabulary and concepts. In late Stage 3, about 3000 words can be read and understood and about 9000 are known when heard. Listening is still more effective than reading. 4. Fluent, comprehending reader - ✔✔-By this stage, reading is used to learn new ideas in order to gain new knowledge, to experience new feelings, to learn new attitudes, and to explore issues from one or more perspectives. Reading includes the study of textbooks, reference works, trade books, newspapers, and magazines that contain new ideas and values, unfamiliar vocabulary and syntax. There is a systematic study of word meaning, and learners are guided to react to texts through discussions, answering questions, generating questions, writing, and more. At beginning of Stage 4, listening comprehension of the same material is still more effective than reading comprehension. By the end of Stage 4, reading and listening are about equal for those who read very well, reading may be more efficient. Fluency - ✔✔-Ability to read a text accurately, quickly, and with expression. Fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension. When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically. They group words quickly to help them gain meaning from what they read. Fluent readers read aloud effortlessly and with expression. Their reading sounds natural, as if they are speaking. Readers who have not yet developed fluency read slowly, word by word. Their oral reading is choppy. Developing Fluent Readers - ✔✔-Strategies: choral reading, cloze reading, read aloud to a partner Choral reading - teacher and students read aloud together, following the teacher's pace. Cloze reading - teacher does most of oral reading. Once or twice every few sentences, the teacher omits an important vocabulary or content word. Development of Spelling - ✔✔-1. Preliterate 2. Phonetic 3. Skill Development 4. Word Extension 5. Derivational Constancy 1. Preliterate - ✔✔-Before children can read, write, or spell, they must first acquire some fundamental understandings about language. This process occurs during the preliterate stage. As children experience the printed page, both as a result of watching books being read and of exploring books on their own, they develop concepts of print. For example, they become aware that English words are written from left to right and flow from the top to the bottom of the page. Beginning writing experiences might include "pretend writing" with scribbles or random marks that eventually become more linear. Children then learn to write actual letters, often beginning with their own names, showing words as strings of letters or letter-like symbols. These activities lay the foundation for the language skills that are developed in the next stage. 2. Phonetic - ✔✔-The second developmental stage is auditory. As children are increasingly exposed to language, they develop phonemic awareness—the ability to distinguish the individual sounds that make up spoken words in English. They then relate these sounds to print by understanding that letters represent sounds, letters make up words, and that each word looks different. In the phonetic stage, most instruction involves helping children match individual sounds in words to their corresponding letters, usually starting with their own names. They often use all capital letters and spell words incorrectly. For example, they may spell KAT for cat, MI for my, LUV for love, and U for you. Silent letters in words like bake or lamb may be omitted. Instructors welcome these spellings as an indication that the student is beginning to understand sound-to-letter correspondence. Children arrive at the end of the phonetic stage once they have learned the basic rules of phonics and can actively apply them to both reading and spelling. 3. Skill Development - ✔✔-This third developmental stage is the most difficult, the most critical, and the longest for emerging spellers. It usually begins by the end of first grade, once children have cracked the basic phonetic code and are progressing rapidly in reading. As students learn the phonics rules needed to develop reading skill, they are able to apply these rules to their spelling. Problems often arise, however, when children become aware of words that are not spelled phonetically, such as house, there, and said. Phonics rules need to be de-emphasized at this stage because they are no longer needed to help the student learn to read. In fact, over-teaching phonics at this stage can actually create unnecessary confusion in spelling. The overriding neurological principle is that, because of the numerous inconsistencies in our language, new and different spellings must be connected to context in order for the new information to be linked correctly and permanently to long-term memory. As students encounter new vocabulary over several grade levels, spelling skill increases as they apply consistent strategies to master more complex spelling patterns and a greater number of irregularly-spelled words. The critical thing to remember is that this is a stage—a developmental link to the stages that follow. Children are often in the skill-development stage through the late elementary years. It may seem repetitious to practice the same skills over and over again, year after year; however, if students do not master these skills, it is very difficult for them to move ahead in spelling development. 4. Word Extension - ✔✔-The next stage—the word-extension stage—focuses on syllables within words, as well as prefixes and suffixes. In the upper elementary or intermediate grades, children often struggle with issues such as doubling consonants when changing the endings (pot/potting, but look/looking) and dropping the final e before adding an ending (love/loving, but excite/excitement). Other issues arise with words such as almost. Why isn't it spelled allmost? Often the brightest children become the most confused or exasperated by these inconsistencies, but they eventually learn to master them as they move through this stage of development. 5. Derivational Constancy - ✔✔-This final stage explores related words—those with the same derivation or origin— that usually have a consistent pattern despite changes in pronunciation. These words are often predictable if a student is familiar with word roots. Greek and Latin root study is helpful at this stage as mature spellers gain an understanding of how patterns and meaning are related. Students gain the most benefit from this stage if they begin derivational studies after basic vocabulary has been learned and a strong foundation has been built in the previous stages. Development of Written Expression - ✔✔-1. Scribbling 2. Letter-like Symbols 3. Strings of Letters 4. Beginning Sounds Emerge 5. Consonants Represent Words 6. Initial, Middle, and Final Sounds 7. Transitional Phases 8. Standard Spelling 1. Scribbling - ✔✔-Scribbling looks like random assortment of marks on a child's paper. Sometimes the marks are large, circular, and random, and resemble drawing. Although the marks do not resemble print, they are significant because the young writer uses them to show ideas. 2. Letter-like Symbols - ✔✔-Letter-like forms emerge, sometimes randomly placed, and are interspersed with numbers. The children can tell about their own drawings or writings. In this stage, spacing is rarely present. 3. Strings of Letters - ✔✔-In the strings-of-letters phase, students write some legible letters that tell us they know more about writing. Students are developing awareness of the sound-to-symbol relationship, although they are not matching most sounds. Students usually write in capital letters and have not yet begun spacing. 4. Beginning Sounds Emerge - ✔✔-At this stage, students begin to see the differences between a letter and a word, but they may not use spacing between words. Their message makes sense and matches the picture, especially when they choose the topic. 5. Consonants Represent Words - ✔✔-Students begin to leave spaces between their words and may often mix upper- and lowercase letters in their writing. They begin using punctuation and usually write sentences that tell ideas. 6. Initial, Middle, and Final Sounds - ✔✔-Students in this phase may spell correctly some sight words, siblings' names, and environmental print, but other words are spelled the way they sounds. Children easily hear sounds in words, and their writing is very readable. 7. Transitional Phases - ✔✔-This writing is readable and approaches conventional spelling. The students' writing is interspersed with words that are in standard form and have standard letter patterns. 8. Standard Spelling - ✔✔-Students in this phase can spell most words correctly and are developing an understanding of root words, compound words, and contractions. This understanding helps students spell similar words. Types of Reading Disability - ✔✔-1. Phonological deficit - implicating a core problem in the phonological processing system of oral language. 2. Processing speed/orthographic processing deficit - affecting speed and accuracy of printed word recognition. 3. Comprehension deficit - often coinciding with the first two types of problems, but specifically found in children with social-linguistic disabilities (e.g., autism spectrum), vocabulary weaknesses, generalized language learning disorders, and learning difficulties that affect abstract reasoning and logical thinking. Factors that affect language and literacy development - ✔✔-Physical and clinical factors: cognitive deficiencies, hearing problems, early language impairment, ADD/ADHD, vision problems Family factors: history of reading difficulties, home literacy environment, opportunities for verbal interaction, home language other than English, nonstandard dialect of English in home, socioeconomic status Neighborhood, community, school: environmental risks, low performing schools, low expectations, lack of resources, conflicting values, negative peer pressure Motivate students to engage in independent literacy practice - ✔✔-Five motivations: 1. Interest 2. Ownership 3. Self-efficacy 4. Social interaction 5. Mastery Strategies to foster independent reading: - help students find books they enjoy - make sure the book is not too difficult - encourage children to explore a variety of types of text - making connections to students' lives -creating a safe and responsive classroom - have students interact with text and with each other about text (jigsaw or fishbowl) - using technology to support communication, presentation, and research Orthography - ✔✔-Consists of learning the entirety of these visual conventions for depicting a particular language, with its repertoire of common letter patterns and of seemingly irregular usages. Children learn orthographic conventions one step at a time.